Psychological symptoms associated with genital herpes virus infections: epidemiology and approaches to management

Epidemiology of herpes simplex virus type 1 in the United States: Systematic review, meta-analyses, and meta-regressions

This study aimed to analytically describe the epidemiology of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) infection in the United States through a systematic review and meta-analytics. We reviewed 159 publications, identifying 190 seroprevalence measures and 43 proportions of HSV-1 detection in genital herpes. The pooled mean HSV-1 seroprevalence was 38.0% (95% CI: 30.9-45.4) among general-population children and 63.5% (95% CI: 61.3-65.7) among general-population adults. Age explained 43% of the seroprevalence variation, with rates increasing progressively with age. Seroprevalence declined by 0.99-fold (95% CI: 0.99-0.99) per year. The pooled mean proportion of HSV-1 detection in genital herpes was 15.4% (95% CI: 10.8-20.6), increasing by 1.02-fold (95% CI: 1.00-1.04) per year. Recurrent genital herpes had a 0.17-fold (95% CI: 0.09-0.32) lower proportion of HSV-1 detection compared to first-episode cases. The epidemiology of HSV-1 is shifting, marked by a decline in oral acquisition during childhood and an increase in genital acquisition during adulthood.

Epidemiology of herpes simplex virus type 1 in Canada: systematic review, meta-analyses, and meta-regressions

Background

The objective of this study was to characterize herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) epidemiology in Canada.

Methods

HSV-1 publications as recent as December 6, 2021 were systematically reviewed, synthesized, and reported following PRISMA guidelines. Meta-analyses and meta-regressions were conducted.

Results

HSV-1 measures were extracted from 22 studies and included 32 overall seroprevalence measures (79 stratified), 2 overall proportions of HSV-1 detection in clinically diagnosed genital ulcer disease (2 stratified), and 8 overall proportions of HSV-1 detection in laboratory-confirmed genital herpes (27 stratified). Pooled mean seroprevalence was 19.1% [95% confidence interval (CI): 12.6-26.4%] among healthy children and 51.4% (95% CI: 47.3-55.5%) among healthy adults. Pooled mean seroprevalence among healthy general populations increased with age, with the lowest being 35.7% (95% CI: 29.1-42.6%) among individuals <20 years of age, and the highest being 70.0% (95% CI: 54.8-83.2) among individuals ≥40 years. Seroprevalence increased by 1.02-fold (95% CI: 1.01-1.04) per year. Pooled mean proportion of HSV-1 detection in genital ulcer disease was 30.8% (95% CI: 12.6-52.8%). Pooled mean proportion of HSV-1 detection in genital herpes was 37.4% (95% CI: 29.5-45.6%) and was highest in women and in young persons. Proportion of HSV-1 detection in genital herpes increased by 1.04-fold (95% CI: 1.00-1.08) per year.

Conclusions

HSV-1 epidemiology in Canada appears to be shifting toward less oral acquisition in childhood and more genital acquisition in adulthood, particularly among youth. Both HSV-1 seroprevalence and proportion of HSV-1 detection in genital herpes are increasing with time.

Knowledge, attitudes, and testing preferences for Herpes Simplex Virus infections among undergraduate students at a large university in Los Angeles, California

OBJECTIVE

Genital herpes is a common sexually transmitted disease among young adults in the United States. We conducted a cross-sectional survey to evaluate herpes simplex virus knowledge among university students.

PARTICIPANTS

612 full-time undergraduate students.

METHODS

We gathered data on demographics, sexual activity, knowledge about the herpes simplex virus, attitudes toward it, and preferences for testing and treatment.

RESULTS

Of 612 full-time undergraduate students, 71.4% (437/612) reported being sexually active. Of them, 54.2% (237/437) reported ever being tested for a sexually transmitted infection. On a standardized knowledge assessment of genital herpes, 22.7% (139/612) of participants scored ≥80% correct. Over half of participants, 57.2% (350/612), reported that they could not cope with a genital herpes outbreak. Being sexually active and tested for sexually transmitted infections was associated with higher scores on the genital herpes knowledge assessment.

CONCLUSION

University students have low knowledge regarding genital herpes. Genital herpes education is needed to improve sexual health and wellness.

Epidemiology of herpes simplex virus type 2 in the Middle East and North Africa: Systematic review, meta-analyses, and meta-regressions

BACKGROUND

Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) infection is a prevalent, sexually transmitted infection with poorly characterized prevalence in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. This study characterized HSV-2 epidemiology in MENA.

METHODS

The systematic review was guided by the Cochrane Collaboration Handbook and findings were reported following PRISMA guidelines. Random-effects meta-analyses and meta-regressions were performed to estimate pooled mean outcome measures and to assess predictors of HSV-2 antibody prevalence (seroprevalence), trends in seroprevalence, and between-study heterogeneity.

FINDINGS

61 overall (133 stratified) HSV-2 seroprevalence measures and two overall (4 stratified) proportion measures of HSV-2 detection in laboratory-confirmed genital herpes were extracted from 37 relevant publications. Pooled mean seroprevalence was 5.1% (95% CI: 3.6-6.8%) among general populations, 13.3% (95% CI: 8.6-18.7%) among intermediate-risk populations, 20.6% (95% CI: 5.3-42.3%) among female sex workers, and 18.3% (95% CI: 3.9-39.4%) among male sex workers. Compared to Fertile Crescent countries, seroprevalence was 3.39-fold (95% CI: 1.86-6.20) and 3.90-fold (95% CI: 1.78-8.57) higher in Maghreb and Horn of Africa countries, respectively. Compared to studies published before 2010, seroprevalence was 1.73-fold (95% CI: 1.00-2.99) higher in studies published after 2015. Pooled mean proportion of HSV-2 detection in genital herpes was 73.8% (95% CI: 42.2-95.9%).

CONCLUSION

MENA has a lower HSV-2 seroprevalence than other world regions. Yet, 1 in 20 adults is chronically infected, despite conservative prevailing sexual norms. Seroprevalence may also be increasing, unlike other world regions. Findings support the need for expansion of surveillance and monitoring of HSV-2 infection in MENA. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Epidemiology of herpes simplex virus type 1 and genital herpes in Australia and New Zealand: systematic review, meta-analyses and meta-regressions

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) infection is a lifelong infection that is acquired primarily orally and during childhood. We aimed to characterise HSV-1 epidemiology in Australia and New Zealand. HSV-1-related data as recent as 6 December 2021 were systematically reviewed, synthesised and reported, following PRISMA guidelines. Pooled mean seroprevalence and proportions of HSV-1 detection in genital ulcer disease (GUD) and in genital herpes were calculated using random-effects meta-analyses. Meta-regressions were also conducted. HSV-1 measures were retrieved from 21 eligible publications. Extracted HSV-1 measures included 13 overall seroprevalence measures (27 stratified) in Australia, four overall proportions of HSV-1 detection in clinically diagnosed GUD (four stratified) in Australia, and ten overall proportions of HSV-1 detection in laboratory-confirmed genital herpes (26 stratified) in Australia and New Zealand. Pooled mean seroprevalence among healthy adults in Australia was 84.8% (95% confidence interval (CI) 74.3-93.1%). Pooled mean seroprevalence was 70.2% (95% CI 47.4-88.7%) among individuals <35 years of age and 86.9% (95% CI 79.3-93.0%) among individuals ≥35 years. Seroprevalence increased by 1.05-fold (95% CI 1.01-1.10) per year. Pooled mean proportion of HSV-1 detection in GUD was 8.2% (95% CI 0.4-22.9%). Pooled mean proportion of HSV-1 detection in genital herpes was 30.5% (95% CI 23.3-38.3%), and was highest in young individuals. Proportion of HSV-1 detection in genital herpes increased by 1.04-fold (95% CI 1.00-1.08) per year. Included studies showed heterogeneity, but 30% of the heterogeneity in seroprevalence and 42% of the heterogeneity in proportion of HSV-1 detection in genital herpes were explained in terms of epidemiological factors. HSV-1 seroprevalence is higher in Australia than in other Western countries. HSV-1 epidemiology in Australia and New Zealand appears to be transitioning towards less oral acquisition in childhood, but more genital acquisition among youth.

Genital Herpes Simplex Virus-An Updated Review

The herpes virus was named by the Greek physician Hippocrates who called it herpes because the lesions appeared near each other and were vesicular. Alphaherpesvirinae, Betaherpesvirinae, and Gammaherpesvirinae are subfamilies of the human herpes virus family. The Alphaherpesvirinae subfamily includes the simplex viruses-HSV-1 and HSV-2-and varicellovirus-varicella zoster virus. There are more than 200 members of the Herpesviridae family capable of infecting different species, 8 of which are known to cause disease in humans. The simplex viruses can cause lifelong genital infections, and despite the prevalence of HSV-1 and HSV-2 infections in the United States decreasing in the past 20 years, infections with these viruses continue to contribute to significant clinical and psychological morbidities.

Impact of primary and recurrent genital herpes on the quality of life of young people and adults: a mixed methods systematic review

OBJECTIVE

This review sought to identify the experiences of persons living with genital herpes and what interventions improve the health-related quality of life of young people and adults with primary or recurrent genital herpes.

INTRODUCTION

Genital herpes is commonly associated with psychosocial challenges. However, a growing body of evidence suggests that its impact can be ameliorated through pharmacological and psychosocial interventions.

INCLUSION CRITERIA

This review considered English- and German-language studies of community-dwelling males and females, of any ethnicity and geographical location, aged 15 years and older, who had primary or recurrent genital herpes. The quantitative component of the review included studies that reported on the virus' impact on patients' health-related quality of life and/or the efficacy of interventions in improving their health-related quality of life. Studies compared antiviral suppression therapies and psychological interventions with usual care or placebo, or against one another. The qualitative component of the review included studies that investigated the perceptions and experiences of young people and adults with genital herpes.

METHODS

Eleven databases were searched from January 1980 to March 2020. The JBI approach to mixed methods systematic reviews was followed at each stage of the review, and a convergent segregated approach to synthesis and integration was adopted.

RESULTS

A total of 31 publications covering 30 studies were deemed suitable for inclusion. Studies encompassed quantitative (n = 27, across 28 publications), qualitative (n = 1), and mixed methods (n = 2) designs. Critical appraisal scores were variable, particularly among the randomized controlled trials and the analytical cross-sectional studies. All studies were included regardless of methodological quality. The quantitative components identified that depression, illness concern, stress, anxiety, isolation, stigma, and a lowering of self-esteem, self-concept, self-confidence, and health-related quality of life may be experienced by both those newly diagnosed with genital herpes and those with recurrences. It was also identified that genital herpes can have an adverse effect on work or school, sexual relationships, and relationships with friends and family. Depression was found to significantly decrease after self-hypnosis and certain psychosocial interventions. Anxiety significantly decreased following pharmacological treatment, psychosocial interventions, and hypnosis. Psychosocial interventions significantly improved mood, and a self-help module with counseling significantly improved participants' satisfaction with intimate relationships and their self-esteem. Pharmacological treatment significantly improved health-related quality of life; however, there were no significant differences between different active treatment regimens. The qualitative component of the review led to the identification of two synthesized findings: "Disclosure of a diagnosis of genital herpes poses a dilemma for people who have the virus" and "A diagnosis of genital herpes has a significant emotional impact for the individual."Integration of quantitative and qualitative evidence revealed a consensus that a diagnosis of genital herpes has a significant emotional impact for individuals and that disclosure is stressful, affects relationships, and affects health-related quality of life; however, there is a lack of consensus regarding efficacy of different interventions.

CONCLUSIONS

Genital herpes can lead to extreme emotional, social, relational, and sexual distress, but there is insufficient knowledge concerning which interventions best improve health-related quality of life. More high-quality research is required.

Herpes simplex virus type 1 in Europe: systematic review, meta-analyses and meta-regressions

Objective

To describe the epidemiology of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) in Europe.

Methods

We systematically reviewed HSV-1 related publications, conducted various meta-analyses and meta-regressions, assessed pooled mean seroprevalence, and estimated pooled mean proportions of HSV-1 viral detection in clinically diagnosed genital ulcer disease (GUD) and in genital herpes.

Results

We extracted, from 142 relevant records, 179 overall (622 stratified) seroprevalence measures, 4 overall proportions of HSV-1 in GUD and 64 overall (162 stratified) proportions of HSV-1 in genital herpes. Pooled mean seroprevalence was 67.4% (95% CI 65.5% to 69.3%) with 32.5% (95% CI 29.4% to 35.7%) of children and 74.4% (95% CI 72.8% to 76.0%) of adults infected. Pooled seroprevalence increased steadily with age, being lowest in those aged <20 years (39.3%, 95% CI 35.9% to 42.7%) and highest in those aged >50 years (82.9%, 95% CI 78.8% to 86.6%). Pooled seroprevalence decreased yearly by 0.99-fold (95% CI 0.99 to 1.00). Pooled mean proportion of HSV-1 detection was 13.6% (95% CI 4.1% to 27.1%) in GUD, 34.1% (95% CI 31.7% to 36.5%) in genital herpes and 49.3% (95% CI 42.2% to 56.4%) in first episode genital herpes. Pooled proportion of HSV-1 detection in genital herpes increased yearly by 1.01-fold (95% CI 1.00 to 1.02), with higher detection in women (42.0%, 95% CI 37.4% to 46.7%) than men (24.1%, 95% CI 19.8% to 28.6%).

Conclusions

HSV-1 epidemiology is transitioning away from its historical pattern of oral acquisition in childhood. Every year, seroprevalence is declining by 1% and the proportion of HSV-1 in genital herpes is increasing by 1%. As many as two-thirds of children are reaching sexual debut unexposed, and at risk of HSV-1 genital acquisition in adulthood.

Epidemiology of herpes simplex virus type 2 in Latin America and the Caribbean: systematic review, meta-analyses and metaregressions

Objective

To characterise epidemiology of herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) in Latin America and the Caribbean.

Methods

HSV-2 reports were systematically reviewed and synthesised, and findings were reported following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Meta-analyses and metaregressions were conducted.

Finding

102 relevant reports were identified including 13 overall incidence measures, 163 overall (and 402 stratified) seroprevalence measures, and 7 and 10 proportions of virus detection in genital ulcer disease and in genital herpes, respectively. Pooled mean seroprevalence was 20.6% (95% CI 18.7% to 22.5%) in general populations, 33.3% (95% CI 26.0% to 41.0%) in intermediate-risk populations, 74.8% (95% CI 70.6% to 78.8%) in female sex workers, and 54.6% (95% CI 47.4% to 61.7%) in male sex workers, men who have sex with men and transgender people. In general populations, seroprevalence increased from 9.6% (95% CI 7.1% to 12.4%) in those aged <20 years to 17.9% (95% CI 13.6% to 22.5%) in those aged 20–30, 27.6% (95% CI 21.4% to 34.2%) in those aged 30–40 and 38.4% (95% CI 32.8% to 44.2%) in those aged >40. Compared with women, men had lower seroprevalence with an adjusted risk ratio (ARR) of 0.68 (95% CI 0.60 to 0.76). Seroprevalence declined by 2% per year over the last three decades (ARR of 0.98, 95% CI 0.97 to 0.99). Pooled mean proportions of HSV-2 detection in GUD and genital herpes were 41.4% (95% CI 18.9% to 67.0%) and 91.1% (95% CI 82.7% to 97.2%), respectively.

Conclusions

One in five adults is HSV-2 infected, a higher level than other world regions, but seroprevalence is declining. Despite this decline, HSV-2 persists as the aetiological cause of nearly half of GUD cases and almost all of genital herpes cases.

Analytic Characterization of the Herpes Simplex Virus Type 2 Epidemic in the United States, 1950-2050

Background

We analytically characterized the past, present, and future levels and trends of the national herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) epidemic in the United States.

Methods

A population-level mathematical model was constructed to describe HSV-2 transmission dynamics and was fitted to the data series of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.

Results

Over 1950–2050, antibody prevalence (seroprevalence) increased rapidly from 1960, peaking at 19.9% in 1983 in those aged 15–49 years, before reversing course to decline to 13.2% by 2020 and 8.5% by 2050. Incidence rate peaked in 1971 at 11.9 per 1000 person-years, before declining by 59% by 2020 and 70% by 2050. Annual number of new infections peaked at 1 033 000 in 1978, before declining to 667 000 by 2020 and 600 000 by 2050. Women were disproportionately affected, averaging 75% higher seroprevalence, 95% higher incidence rate, and 71% higher annual number of infections. In 2020, 78% of infections were acquired by those 15–34 years of age.

Conclusions

The epidemic has undergone a major transition over a century, with the greatest impact in those 15–34 years of age. In addition to 47 million prevalent infections in 2020, high incidence will persist over the next 3 decades, adding >600 000 new infections every year.

Estimates of the Prevalence and Incidence of Genital Herpes, United States, 2018

BACKGROUND

Although there are more recent estimate of genital herpes prevalence, incidence estimates in the United States (US) have not been updated since 2008.

METHODS

We estimated genital herpes prevalence and incidence for 2018 among adults aged 18 to 49 years. We estimated prevalence using 2015-2018 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) seroprevalence data among the noninstitutionalized civilian population and extrapolated this prevalence to the full US population using 2018 American Community Survey data. We estimated incidence using 2011 to 2018 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey HSV-2 data as inputs to a simple mathematical model. We used Monte Carlo simulation to generate 10,000 input parameter sets for age and sex subpopulations and summarized our estimates by their median; uncertainty intervals for these estimates are characterized by their first (Q1) and third (Q3) quartiles. We conducted sensitivity analyses investigating the impact of HSV type 1 (HSV-1) infection on estimates of genital herpes burden.

RESULTS

In 2018, there were an estimated 18.6 (Q1 = 18.1, Q3 = 19.0) million prevalent and 572,000 (Q1 = 479,000, Q3 = 673,000) incident genital herpes infections among 18- to 49-year-olds. Women accounted for two thirds of prevalent infections with an estimated 12.1 (Q1 = 11.9, Q3 = 12.5) million infections. Incidence was highest among 18- to 24-year-olds with an estimated 242,000 (Q1 = 210,000, Q3 = 274,000) infections. Sensitivity analyses indicated that HSV-1 could be responsible for millions more prevalent genital herpes infections, and tens of thousands of additional incident genital herpes infections, depending on the percentage of HSV-1 infections that are genital.

DISCUSSION

Genital herpes is a common sexually transmitted disease in the United States. Future research to understand the burden of genital infections attributable to HSV-1 would refine estimates of genital herpes burden.

Epidemiological Impact of Novel Preventive and Therapeutic HSV-2 Vaccination in the United States: Mathematical Modeling Analyses

This study aims to inform herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) vaccine development, licensure, and implementation by delineating the population-level impact of vaccination. Mathematical models were constructed to describe the transmission dynamics in presence of prophylactic or therapeutic vaccines assuming 50% efficacy, with application to the United States. Catch-up prophylactic vaccination will reduce, by 2050, annual number of new infections by 58%, incidence rate by 60%, seroprevalence by 21%, and avert yearly as much as 350,000 infections. Number of vaccinations needed to avert one infection was only 50 by 2050, 34 by prioritizing those aged 15-19 years, 4 by prioritizing the highest sexual risk group, 43 by prioritizing women, and 47 by prioritizing men. Therapeutic vaccination of infected adults with symptomatic disease will reduce, by 2050, annual number of new infections by 12%, incidence rate by 13%, seroprevalence by 4%, and avert yearly as much as 76,000 infections. Number of vaccinations needed to avert one infection was eight by 2050, two by prioritizing those aged 15-19 years, three by prioritizing the highest sexual risk group, seven by prioritizing men, and ten by prioritizing women. HSV-2 vaccination offers an impactful and cost-effective intervention to prevent genital herpes medical and psychosexual disease burden.

Association of Depressed Mood With Herpes Simplex Virus-2 Immunoglobulin-G Levels in Pregnancy

OBJECTIVE

Depressed mood is common in pregnancy, is associated with stress, and could result in immune suppression that may lead to latent herpes viral reactivation. This study investigated whether depressed mood is associated with higher herpes viral IgG levels in pregnant women.

METHODS

Complete cross-sectional data from 247 pregnant women were available for this substudy. The data included demographics, scores on the Perceived Stress Scale and Profile of Mood States (POMS), and a panel of serum IgG levels for human herpesviruses.

RESULTS

Only the herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) (genital herpes) IgG level was associated with Perceived Stress Scale and POMS-Depression/Dejection (POMS-D) score. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis was used to examine the association of POMS-D with herpesviral IgG levels adjusting for demographic variables. In the final model, African American race (β = .251, p < .001), older age (β = .199, p = .002), single marital status (β = -.304, p < .001), and depressed mood (β = .122, p = .04) were associated with HSV-2 IgG levels. In logistic regression, the strongest correlates of HSV IgG positivity were single marital status, followed by POMS-D scores and African American race.

CONCLUSION

Genital herpes is a concern in pregnancy. Antibody titers may indicate asymptomatic viral shedding, viral reactivation, or primary viral infection. Antibody levels may be higher because of the immune changes during pregnancy and potential immune effects of depressed mood causing reactivation of latent HSV-2.

HSV antivirals - current and future treatment options

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) types 1 and 2 can cause infections with clinical manifestations ranging from benign and generally self-limiting blisters or sores as seen in labial and genital herpes through to severe and in rare cases even life-threatening infections. At present, approved treatments for herpes simplex virus are almost all nucleoside analogs. Novel antiviral approaches include therapeutic vaccines, with the most advanced having successfully completed Phase 2 clinical development. Moreover, several small molecules approaches are being developed for the treatment of genital or labial HSV infections. Of particular interest are two novel compounds (amenamevir and pritelivir) belonging to the new class of helicase-primase inhibitors with promising Phase 2 data.

Current thinking on genital herpes

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Genital herpes has a high global prevalence and burden of disease. This manuscript highlights recent advances in our understanding of genital herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections.

RECENT FINDINGS

Studies demonstrate a changing epidemiological landscape with an increasing proportion of genital herpes cases associated with HSV type 1. There is also growing evidence that the majority of infected individuals exhibit frequent, brief shedding episodes that are most often asymptomatic, which likely contribute to high HSV transmission rates. Given this finding as well as readily available serological assays, some have proposed that routine HSV screening be performed; however, this remains controversial and is not currently recommended. Host immune responses, particularly local CD4 and CD8 T cell activity, are crucial for HSV control and clearance following initial infection, during latency and after reactivation. Prior HSV immunity may also afford partial protection against HSV reinfection and disease. Although HSV vaccine trials have been disappointing to date and existing antiviral medications are limited, novel prophylactic and therapeutic modalities are currently in development.

SUMMARY

Although much remains unknown about genital herpes, improved knowledge of HSV epidemiology, pathogenesis and host immunity may help guide new strategies for disease prevention and control.

Reproductive and other health outcomes in Iraq and Afghanistan women veterans using VA health care: association with mental health diagnoses

BACKGROUND

An increasing number of women serve in the military and are exposed to trauma during service that can lead to mental health problems. Understanding how these mental health problems affect reproductive and physical health outcomes will inform interventions to improve care for women veterans.

METHODS

We analyzed national Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) data from women Iraq and Afghanistan veterans who were new users of VA healthcare from October 7, 2001, through December 31, 2010 (n = 71,504). We used ICD-9 codes to categorize veterans into five groups by mental health diagnoses (MH Dx): Those with no MH Dx, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, comorbid PTSD and depression, and a MH Dx other than PTSD and depression. We determined the association between mental health category and reproductive and other physical health outcomes defined by ICD-9 codes. Categories included sexually transmitted infections, other infections (e.g., urinary tract infections), pain-related conditions (e.g., dysmenorrhea and dsypareunia), and other conditions (e.g., polycystic ovarian syndrome, infertility, sexual dysfunction). Models were adjusted for sociodemographic and military service factors.

RESULTS

There were 31,481 patients (44%) who received at least one mental health diagnosis. Women veterans with any mental health diagnosis had significantly higher prevalences of nearly all categories of reproductive and physical disease diagnoses (p < .0001 for adjusted prevalences). There was a trend of increasing prevalence of disease outcomes in women with PTSD, depression, and comorbid PTSD and depression (p for trend <.0001 for all outcomes).

CONCLUSIONS

Iraq and Afghanistan women veterans with mental health diagnoses had significantly greater prevalences of several important reproductive and physical health diagnoses. These results provide support for VA initiatives to address mental and physical health concerns and improve comprehensive care for women veterans.

Helicase–primase inhibitors as the potential next generation of highly active drugs against herpes simplex viruses

Since the introduction of the nucleoside analogs decades ago, treatment of herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections has not seen much innovation, except for the development of their respective prodrugs. The inhibitors of the helicase–primase complex of HSV represent a very innovative approach to the treatment of herpesvirus disease, and this article considers the development of some representatives of this class of therapeutics. The molecular and biochemical features of the helicase–primase complex are considered and the development of three inhibitors of helicase–primase, BILS 179 BS, AIC316 and ASP2151, is described. The clinical development of AIC316 is at an advanced stage and displays general safety as well as favorable, long-lasting exposures in healthy volunteers. The first efficacy data from a Phase II trial with more than 150 HSV-2-positive subjects demonstrated dose-dependent antiviral activity.

The psychological impact of genital herpes stigma

This article reviews the psychological consequences of genital herpes infection through the lens of a recently proposed framework for conceptualizing concealable stigmas. We incorporate research on identity, stigma, and the connection between psychological and physical health to outline how negative stigma-related psychological consequences perpetuate distress associated with genital herpes. Our review of the research suggests a model linking negative affect and poor coping to frequent recurrences of genital herpes outbreaks. Frequent outbreaks, in turn, increase the salience of the stigma, reinforcing a stigmatized self-schema, thereby creating negative psychological consequences, continuing the cycle. We conclude by discussing the implications of this model for future research and mental health treatment.

Does psychosocial stress predict symptomatic herpes simplex virus recurrence? A meta-analytic investigation on prospective studies

Previous psychological studies have paid extensive attention to the association between psychosocial stress and symptomatic herpes simplex virus (HSV) recurrence, but subsequent research has been conducted and conflicting findings have been published. We aimed to quantify the longitudinal association between psychosocial stress and recurrent HSV in the contemporary literature. We searched Medline; PsycINFO; Web of Science; PubMed up to March 2009, and included prospective studies that investigated associations between psychosocial stress and symptomatic HSV recurrence. Two reviewers independently extracted data on study characteristics, quality, and estimates of associations. The overall meta-analysis examining 11 articles (17 psychosocial and disease related relationships) exhibited a robust positive association between psychosocial stress and symptomatic HSV recurrence (correlation coefficient as combined effect size 0.083, 95% confidence interval 0.025-0.141, p=0.005). This finding was supported by more conservative analysis of aggregate effects and by sensitivity analysis of the methodologically strong studies. There were indications of publication bias in some analyses. Intriguingly, sensitivity analyses demonstrated that psychological distress was more strongly associated with symptomatic HSV recurrence than stress stimuli per se, and that psychosocial stress tended to be more strongly associated with oral than genital herpes recurrence. In conclusion, the current review reveals a robust relationship between psychosocial stress and symptomatic HSV recurrence, justifying further research in this field, especially clinical trials evaluating the efficacy of stress reduction interventions on HSV recurrence.

HSV: what you need to know to care for your pregnant patient

The purpose of this article is to provide nurses with information about herpes simplex virus (HSV): its transmission and diagnosis, and the recommended management during pregnancy and birth. Genital herpes is one of the three most common, chronic sexually transmitted infections in the United States. Diagnosis of HSV infection is challenging, because obtaining cultures of lesions can be difficult and delays occur before accurate results are available. Serological testing can determine whether a person has had the infection, but antibodies are not present in sufficient quantities for about 6 to 12 weeks after exposure, leaving a large window of time for false-negative results. Pregnant women who have genital herpes present a complex management situation because fetal exposure to the virus during the birth process can lead to neonatal infection and high morbidity and mortality rates. Appropriate physical, psychological, and educational management of seropositive and/or symptomatic women during pregnancy, coupled with prompt diagnosis and treatment of infected newborns, offers the best hope for positive outcomes.

Does chronic stress lead to increased rates of recurrences of genital herpes - a review of the psychoneuroimmunological evidence?

Summary:

It is a commonly expressed expert view that stress is associated with frequent recurrences of genital herpes (GH) but the evidence for this is poor and it is often asserted that stress is the result of GH rather than any other cause. We have reviewed the recent literature on this topic, restricting evidence to only prospective studies. We have further combined and integrated this evidence with both human and animal work in the psychoneuroimmunological field to come up with suggestive evidence that recurrence rates of GH are indeed associated with antecedent chronic stress/depression, whatever might be the cause. We further discuss the psychoneuroimmunological underpinning of the systemic features of the recurrent GH prodrome. Recommendations about holistic management of recurrent GH that include both pharmacological and psychological therapies are given.

Genital herpes vaccines—cause for cautious optimism

The high prevalence of herpes simplex virus infections in many communities, its numerous serious physical and psychological complications and its importance in enhancing the transmission of HIV make this virus an obvious target for prevention by vaccination. Randomised clinical trials of only one genital herpes vaccine has shown efficacy so far. Analysis of clinical results is complicated by the difference between disease and infection, different results for males and females and the interaction between HSV-1 and HSV-2 immunity.