Potential risk of BPA and phthalates in commercial water bottles: a minireview

Mitigation of benzyl butyl phthalate toxicity in male germ cells with combined treatment of parthenolide, N-acetylcysteine, and 3-methyladenine

Benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP) is a widely used plasticizer that poses various potential health hazards. Although BBP has been extensively studied, the direct mechanism underlying its toxicity in male germ cells remains unclear. Therefore, we investigated BBP-mediated male germ cell toxicity in GC-1 spermatogonia (spg), a differentiated mouse male germ cell line. This study investigated the impact of BBP on reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, apoptosis, and autophagy regulation, as well as potential protective measures against BBP-induced toxicity. A marked dose-dependent decrease in GC-1 spg cell proliferation was observed following treatment with BBP at 12.5 μM. Exposure to 50 μM BBP, approximating the IC50 of 53.9 μM, markedly increased cellular ROS generation and instigated apoptosis, as evidenced by augmented protein levels of both intrinsic and extrinsic apoptosis-related markers. An amount of 50 μM BBP induced marked upregulation of autophagy regulator proteins, p38 MAPK, and extracellular signal-regulated kinase and substantially downregulated the phosphorylation of key kinases involved in regulating cell proliferation, including phosphoinositide 3-kinase, protein kinase B, mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), c-Jun N-terminal kinase. The triple combination of N-acetylcysteine, parthenolide, and 3-methyladenine markedly restored cell proliferation, decreased BBP-induced apoptosis and autophagy, and restored mTOR phosphorylation. This study provides new insights into BBP-induced male germ cell toxicity and highlights the therapeutic potential of the triple inhibitors in mitigating BBP toxicity.

Prenatal diethylhexylphthalate exposure disturbs adult Leydig cell function via epigenetic downregulation of METTL4 expression in male rats

Prenatal exposure to diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) has been linked with a decline in testosterone levels in adult male rats, but the underlying mechanism remains unclear. We investigated the potential epigenetic regulation, particularly focusing on N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification, as a possible mechanism. Dams were gavaged with DEHP (0, 10, 100, and 750 mg/kg/day) from gestational day 14 to day 21. The male offspring were examined at the age of 56 days. Prenatal DEHP administration at 750 mg/kg/day caused a decline in testosterone concentrations, an elevation in follicle-stimulating hormone, a downregulated expression of CYP11A1 HSD3B2, without affecting Leydig cell numbers. Interestingly, Methyltransferase Like 4 (METTL4), an m6A methyltransferase, was downregulated, while there were no changes in METTL3 and METTL14. Moreover, CYP11A1 showed m6A reduction in response to prenatal DEHP exposure. Additionally, METTL4 expression increased postnatally, peaking in adulthood. Knockdown of METTL4 resulted in the downregulation of CYP11A1 and HSD3B2 and an increase in SCARB1 expression. Furthermore, the increase in autophagy protection in adult Leydig cells induced by prenatal DEHP exposure was not affected by 3-methyladenosine (3MA) treatment, indicating a potential protective role of autophagy in response to DEHP exposure. In conclusion, prenatal DEHP exposure reduces testosterone by downregulating CYP11A1 and HSD3B2 via m6A epigenetic regulation and induction of autophagy protection in adult Leydig cells as a response to DEHP exposure.

Influence of UV light, ultrasound, and heat treatment on the migration of bisphenol A from polyethylene terephthalate bottle into the food simulant

This research examined the impacts of ultrasound, UV light, storage time, and temperature on the leaching of bisphenol A (BPA) from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) drinking water bottles in Turkey. The initial phase of the investigation encompassed the quantification of BPA in two distinct brands of bottled water. Samples were extracted by solid- phase extraction (SPE) and analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD). According to the results in the first part, the highest BPA levels were found in bottled water. In the second part of the study, 10 to 30 min of ultrasound treatment increased the BPA migration with increased time in simulants. In the first and second weeks of storage at 25 °C, the effect of storage on BPA migration was below the detection limit ( Collapse

Key Words

• Bisphenol A
• Food Simulants
• HPLC-FLD
• PET bottles
• UV light
• Ultrasound

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MESH Headings

• Polyethylene Terephthalates/chemistry
• Hot Temperature
• Drinking Water/analysis
• Ultraviolet Rays
• Food Contamination/analysis
• Benzhydryl Compounds/analysis
• Food Packaging

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Grants Collapse

Affiliation(s)

Zana M Abdulazeez Department of Food Science and Quality Control, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering Sciences, University of Sulaimani, Iraq.
Fehmi Yazici Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun, Turkey
Abdurrahman Aksoy Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun, Turkey

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Electrochemical Detection of Bisphenol A Based on Gold Nanoparticles/Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes: Applications on Glassy Carbon and Screen Printed Electrodes

Bisphenol A (BPA) has been classified as an endocrine-disrupting substance that may cause adverse effects on human health and the environment. The development of simple and sensitive electrochemical biosensors is crucial for the rapid and effective quantitative determination of BPA. This work presents a study on electrochemical sensors utilizing gold nanoparticle-modified multi-walled carbon nanotubes (CNT/AuNPs). Glassy carbon electrodes (GCEs) and screen-printed electrodes (SPEs) were conveniently modified and used for BPA detection. AuNPs were electrodeposited onto the CNT-modified electrodes using the galvanostatic method. The electrodes were properly modified and characterized by using Raman spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry (CV), and electrochemical impedance analysis (EIS). The electrochemical response of the sensors was studied using differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) and constant potential amperometry (CPA) for modified GCE and SPE electrodes, respectively, and the main analytical parameters were studied and optimized. Problems encountered with the use of GCEs, such as sensor degradation and high limit of detection (LOD), were overcome by using modified SPEs and a flow injection device for the measurements. Under this approach, an LOD as low as 5 nM (S/N = 3) was achieved and presented a linear range up to 20 μM. Finally, our investigation addressed interference, reproducibility, and reusability aspects, successfully identifying BPA in both spiked and authentic samples, including commercial and tap waters. These findings underscore the practical applicability of our method for accurate BPA detection in real-world scenarios. Notably, the integration of SPEs and a flow injection device facilitated simplified automation, offering an exceptionally efficient and reliable solution for precise BPA detection in water analysis laboratories.

Formation of halogenated forms of bisphenol A (BPA) in water: Resolving isomers with ion mobility - mass spectrometry and the role of halogenation position in cellular toxicity

Halogenated BPA (XBPA) forms resulting from water chlorination can lead to increased toxicity and different biological effects. While previous studies have reported the occurrence of different XBPAs, analytical limitation have hindered the analysis and differentiation of the many potential isomeric forms. Using online solid-phase extraction - liquid chromatography - ion-mobility - high-resolution mass spectrometry (OSPE-LC-IM-HRMS), we demonstrated a rapid analysis method for the analysis of XBPA forms after water chlorination, with a total analysis time of less than 10 min including extraction and concentration and low detection limits (∼5-80 ng/L range). A multi in-vitro bioassay testing approach for the identified products revealed that cytotoxicity and bioenergetics impacts were largely associated with the presence of halogen atoms at positions 2 or 2' and the overall number of halogens incorporated into the BPA molecule. Different XBPA also showed distinct impacts on oxidative stress, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma - PPARγ, and inflammatory response. While increased DNA damage was observed for chlorinated water samples (4.14 ± 1.21-fold change), the additive effect of the selected 20 XBPA studied could not explain the increased DNA damage observed, indicating that additional species or synergistic effects might be at play.

The impact of tetrachlorobisphenol A exposure during puberty: Altered Leydig cell development and induced endoplasmic reticulum stress in male mice

Tetrachlorobisphenol A (TCBPA), a halogenated flame retardant and endocrine disruptor, has been detected in human urine and serum. While previous research has shown its impact on the reproductive system, investigations into its mechanisms during puberty remain limited. This study aims to explore the effects of TCBPA on Leydig cells in adolescent mice and potential underlying mechanisms. Male C57 mice of age 28 days were gavaged with 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg/day for 28 days. TCBPA did not alter body weight and testis weight but lowered testosterone levels at 100 and 200 mg/kg and reduced sperm count in the epididymis at 200 mg/kg. TCBPA lowered Leydig cell number at 200 mg/kg while it downregulated key Leydig cell gene (Lhcgr, Scarb1, Cyp11a1, Cyp17a1, Hsd3b6, Hsd17b3 and Insl3) as low as 50 mg/kg. Further study indicated that TCBPA induced reactive oxygen species and caused endoplasmic reticulum stress. In vitro study in TM3 mouse Leydig cells showed that TCBPA indeed induced reactive oxygen species and caused endoplasmic reticulum stress at 75 μM and inhibited testosterone production at this concentration and addition of antioxidant tocopherol can reverse it. These discoveries provide new insights and references for a deeper understanding of the toxic mechanisms of TCBPA on Leydig cells during puberty.

Exposure to micro(nano)plastics polymers in water stored in single-use plastic bottles

Human exposure to micro (nano)plastics (MNPLs) has become a significant concern as a potential health threat. Exposure routes include ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact, being food and drinking water the primary sources of oral exposure. Here we present the quantification of polymers of MNPLs particles from 700 nm to 20 μm in bottled water commercialised in Spain, including an estimation of the potential risk for daily consumers. We evaluated samples from 20 popular brands in 0.5 and 1.5 L plastic bottles. A double-suspect screening approach developed and validated in our research group for drinking water was adapted for bottled water samples. The identification and quantification of MNPLs-polymers in mass units and the tentative identification of plastic additives (PA) until the second level of confidence was carried out based on high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry (HPLC-HRMS). The results showed the presence of polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene terephthalate (PET) in the samples. Among them, PE was the most frequently detected and quantified polymer (55% of samples) followed by PET which was detected in 33% of the samples and showing the highest concentration (4700 ng L-1). The median value of the sum of polymer concentrations was 359 ng L-1. In addition, 28 plastic additives were detected, where at least one of them was present in 100% of the samples. Stabilizers and plasticisers were the most frequently identified. A prioritisation study was performed using a multi-QSAR modelling software, where bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate and bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate were estimated as the most potentially harmful compounds for human health. Overall, findings suggest that bottled water is a non-negligible route to exposure to MNPLs.

A cohort study investigating the role of Bisphenol A in the molecular pathogenesis of breast cancer

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer is an abnormal division of breast cells. Bisphenol A (BPA), an environmental toxicant, is identified as an emerging risk factor for breast cancer development. However, to the best of our knowledge, no previous study has investigated the BPA levels in breast cancer patients in Pakistan. The present study sought to explore the role of BPA in tumor growth among the Pakistani population.

METHODS

The levels of BPA were analyzed in the serum samples of breast cancer patients and controls by using HPLC. To elucidate the role of BPA to initiate tumorigenic events in breast tissue different biochemical assays along with expression analysis of tumor markers were performed.

RESULTS

The level of BPA in the serum samples of breast cancer patients was significantly higher than control. Histological analysis of breast cancer tissue samples revealed distinct subtypes of tumor, such as ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) and invasive ductal carcinoma (IDC). There was a significant increase in ROS level while a significant decrease in the levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) enzymes in malignant breast tissue samples as compared to control tissue samples. We found upregulated expression of p53, ZEB1 and WNT1 genes at mRNA level in malignant breast tissue samples by 17 folds, 328 folds and 35 folds, respectively. p53 protein expression in malignant breast tissue samples was also enhanced at the translational level.

CONCLUSION

Current findings suggest a relationship between BPA and the progression of breast cancer among the Pakistani population.

Worldwide risk assessment of phthalates and bisphenol A in humans: The need for updating guidelines

Phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA) are compounds widely used as raw materials in the production of plastics, making them ubiquitous in our daily lives. This results in widespread human exposure and human health hazards. Although efforts have been conducted to evaluate the risk of these compounds in diverse regions around the world, data scattering may mask important trends that could be useful for updating current guidelines and regulations. This study offers a comprehensive global assessment of human exposure levels to these chemicals, considering dietary and nondietary ingestion, and evaluates the associated risk. Overall, the exposure daily intake (EDI) values of phthalates and BPA reported worldwide ranged from 1.11 × 10-7 to 3 700 µg kg bw-1 d-1 and from 3.00 × 10-5 to 6.56 µg kg bw-1 d-1, respectively. Nevertheless, the dose-additive effect of phthalates has been shown to increase the EDI up to 5 100 µg kg bw-1 d-1, representing a high risk in terms of noncarcinogenic (HQ) and carcinogenic (CR) effects. The worldwide HQ values of phthalates and BPA ranged from 2.25 × 10-7 to 3.66 and from 2.74 × 10-7 to 9.72 × 10-2, respectively. Meanwhile, a significant number of studies exhibit high CR values for benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP) and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP). Moreover, DEHP has shown the highest maximum mean CR values for humans in numerous studies, up to 179-fold higher than BBP. Despite mounting evidence of the harmful effects of these chemicals at low-dose exposure on animals and humans, most regulations have not been updated. Thus, this article emphasizes the need for updating guidelines and public policies considering compelling evidence for the adverse effects of low-dose exposure, and it cautions against the use of alternative plasticizers as substitutes for phthalates and BPA because of the significant gaps in their safety.

Evodiamine alleviates DEHP-induced hepatocyte pyroptosis, necroptosis and immunosuppression in grass carp through ROS-regulated TLR4 / MyD88 / NF-κB pathway

Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a neuroendocrine disruptor that can cause multi-tissue organ damage by inducing oxidative stress. Evodiamine (EVO) is an indole alkaloid with anti-inflammatory, antitumor, and antioxidant pharmacological activity. In this manuscript, the effects of DEHP and EVO on the pyroptosis, necroptosis and immunology of grass carp hepatocytes (L8824) were investigated using DCFH-DA staining, PI staining, IF staining, AO/EB staining, LDH kit, qRT-PCR and protein Western blot. The results showed that DEHP exposure upregulated reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, promoted the expression of TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway, increased the expression of genes involved in cell pyroptosis pathway (LDH, NLRP3, ASC, caspase1, IL-1β, IL-18 and GSDMD) and necroptosis-related genes (RIPK1, RIPK3 and MLKL). The expression of DEHP can also affect immune function, which can be demonstrated by variationsin the activation of antimicrobial peptides (LEAP2, HEPC, and β-defensin) and inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-2, IL-6 and IL-10). EVO regulates cellular antioxidant capacity by inhibiting ROS burst, reduces DEHP-induced cell pyroptosis and necroptosis to some extent, and restores cellular immune function, after co-exposure with EVO. The TLR4 pathway was inhibited by the co-treatment of TLR4 inhibitor TLR-IN-C34 and DEHP, which attenuated the expression of cell pyroptosis, necroptosis, and immunosuppression. Thus, DEHP induced pyroptosis, necroptosis and abnormal immune function in L8824 cells by activating TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway. In addition, EVO has a therapeutic effect on DEHP-induced toxic injury. This study further provides a theoretical basis for the risk assessment of plasticizer DEHP on aquatic organisms.

Characteristics and health risks of population exposure to phthalates via the use of face towels

The production of face towels is growing at an annual rate of about 4% in China, reaching 1.13 million tons by 2021. Phthalates (PAEs) are widely used in textiles, and face towels, as an important household textile, may expose people to PAEs via the skin, further leading to health risks. We collected new face towels and analyzed the distribution characterization of PAEs in them. The changes of PAEs were explored in a face towel use experiment and a simulated laundry experiment. Based on the use of face towels by 24 volunteers, we calculated the estimated daily intake (EDI) and comprehensively assessed the hazard quotient (HQ), hazard index (HI), and dermal cancer risk (DCR) of PAEs exposure in the population. PAEs were present in new face towels at total concentrations of <MDL-2388 ng/g, with a median of 173.2 ng/g, which was a lower contamination level compared with other textiles. PAE contents in used face towels were significantly higher than in new face towels. The concentrations of PAEs in coral velvet were significantly higher than those in cotton. Water washing removed some PAEs, while detergent washing increased the PAE content on face towels. Gender, weight, use time, and material were the main factors affecting EDI. The HQ and HI were less than 1, which proved PAEs had no significant non-carcinogenic health risks. Among the five target PAEs studied, DEHP was the only carcinogenic PAE and may cause potential health risks after long-term exposure. Therefore, we should pay more attention to DEHP.

Increased levels of IL-17 and autoantibodies following Bisphenol A exposure were associated with activation of PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway and abnormal autophagy in MRL/lpr mice

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a common environmental endocrine disruptor which mimic the effect of estrogen. The immunotoxicity of BPA has attracted widespread attention in recent years. However, the effects and mechanism of BPA on autoimmune disease were rarely reported. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a typical autoimmune disease, and its etiology and mechanism are complex and unclear. Currently, inflammation and the production of autoantibodies are considered to be important pathological mechanisms of SLE, and estrogen contributes to the occurrence and development of SLE. Therefore, in order to explore whether BPA exposure can affect the development of SLE and its possible mechanism, we used MRL/lpr (lupus-prone mice) and C57/BL6 female mice exposed to 0.1 and 0.2 µg/mL BPA for 6 weeks. We discovered that BPA exposure increased the concentration of serum anti-dsDNA antibody and IL-17, and the level of RORγt protein (the transcription factor of Th17 cells). Moreover, there were higher expression of p-PI3K, p-AKT, p-mTOR, ULK, Rubicon, P62, Becline1 and LC3 protein in spleen tissue of BPA exposed MRL/lpr mice compared with the control. However, there were no significant changes in the expression of IL-17, RORγt or mTOR in C57 mice exposed to BPA at the same dose. Our study implied that BPA exposure induced the development of SLE, which might be related to the up-regulation of PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway and abnormal autophagy. Our study indicated that lupus mice were more susceptible to BPA, and provided a new insight into the mechanism by which BPA exacerbated SLE. Therefore, our study suggested that autoimmune patients and susceptible population should be considered when setting thresholds for environmental BPA exposure.

Endocrine modulating chemicals in food packaging: A review of phthalates and bisphenols

Phthalates and bisphenol chemicals have been widely used globally in packaging materials and consumer products for several decades. These highly functional chemicals have become a concern due to their toxicity (i.e., endocrine/hormone modulators) and ability to migrate from food contact materials (FCMs) into food matrices and the environment resulting in human and environmental health risks. FCMs, composed of postconsumer materials, are particularly high risk for containing these compounds. The evaluation of postconsumer recycled feedstocks in FCMs is compulsory and selection of an appropriate detection method to comply with applicable regulations is necessary to evaluate human and environmental safety. Numerous regulations have been proposed and passed globally for both compound classes that are recognized as priority pollutants by the United States Environmental Protection Agency and the European Union. Several brand owners and retailers have also released their own "restricted substance lists" due to the mounting consumer and regulatory concerns. This review article has two goals: (1) discuss the utilization, toxicology, human exposure routes, and occurrence levels of phthalates and bisphenols in FCMs and associated legislation in various countries and (2) discuss critical understanding and updates for detection/quantification techniques. Current techniques discussed include extraction and sample preparation methods (solid-phase microextraction [SPME], headspace SPME, Soxhlet procedure, ultrasound-assisted extraction), chromatographic techniques (gas, liquid, detectors), and environmental/blank considerations for quantification. This review complements a previous review of phthalates in foods from 2009 by discussing phthalate and bisphenol characteristics, analytical methods of determining concentrations in packaging materials, and their influence on the migration potential into food.

Migration of BPA from Food Packaging and Household Products on the Croatian Market

BPA is a plasticizer for the production of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins and is widely used in the production of household goods, including food packaging. Free BPA is known to migrate from packaging to food, and its uptake has been associated with adverse health effect, particularly the disruption of endocrine activity. The presence and migration of BPA from plastic consumer products are subject to strict regulation in the EU. The aim of this study is to analyse the migration of BPA from different packaging items and household products sold on the Croatian market. To simulate real life exposure, we treated samples with a food simulant. The analytical performance was confirmed with the EU requirements. BPA levels were assessed in 61 samples by HPLC-FLD and the LOQ of the method was 0.005 mg kg-1 for the food simulant. These results showed that the levels of BPA that migrated to the food simulant were below LOQ and in accordance with the specific migration limit into food, which was defined as 0.05 mg kg-1 for all samples. None of the analysed products presented a health hazard. However, these regulations do not refer to products intended for children's use, in which BPA is banned. Furthermore, regulations require testing before putting products on the market, and previous research shows that possible BPA migration occurs due to various uses, along with a cumulative effect of exposure from even very small concentrations. Therefore, for accurate BPA consumer exposure evaluation and possible health risks, a comprehensive approach is needed.

Monitoring of the presence of plasticizers and effect of temperature and storage time in bottled water using a green liquid-liquid microextraction method

In this work, a natural deep eutectic solvent was used for the liquid-liquid microextraction of fourteen phthalates and one adipate from bottled waters. The methodology was validated in terms of matrix effect, linearity, recovery, and limits of quantification (LOQs). Optimum extraction conditions (10 mL of water at pH 8.0 with 100 μL of thymol: menthol 2:1 (n/n) as solvent) provided satisfactory determination coefficients (≥ 0.9977), recovery values (82-127%), and LOQs (0.018-0.523 μg/L). The effects of temperature and storage time on plasticizer presence were studied for 36 different brands stored at 4 °C, room temperature, and 45 °C, and analyzed at 0, 24, 48, 72 h, and 1 week. Only diethyl-, dibutyl-, bis-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalates, and bis-(2-ethylhexyl) adipate were detected. The results showed that there is no relationship between the storage conditions, the bottle material or water carbonation, and the occurrence of these plasticizers, suggesting that residues are introduced during production or by the water supply. The estimated daily intake was lower than the total daily intake set by the European Food Safety Authority.

Determination of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) along with probabilistic health risk assessment in fruit juice samples in Tehran, Iran

In the present study, magnetic solid phase extraction (MSPE) method and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) technique were used to measure 6 PAE in fruit juice samples. The mean of total phthalic acid esters (ƩPAEs) in all samples was 3.55 ± 0.66 µg/L. The mean concentration of DEHP (bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate) in samples was 0.82 ± 0.31 µg/L, which was lower than the mentioned United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) standard level in drinking water (6 μg/L for DEHP). The pineapple juice samples (4.44 ± 0.57 µg/L) and mango juice samples (2.77 ± 0. 1 µg/L) had maximum and minimum mean levels of ƩPAEs, respectively. Also, results showed that brand B (3.76 ± 0.87 µg/L) and samples in the time of expiration date (3.64 ± 0.72 µg/L) had the highest PAE levels. The rank order Chronic Daily Intake (95%) values for adults were DEHP ([Formula: see text]) > butylbenzyl phthalates (BBP) ([Formula: see text]) > diethyl phthalate (DEP) ([Formula: see text]) and for children were DEHP ([Formula: see text]) > BBP (9.07E-04) > DEP ([Formula: see text]), which were below the tolerable daily intake (TDI) value. The noncancer risk of PAEs based on the target hazard quotient (THQ) was acceptable (< 1). The results exhibited that the Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk (ILCR) was below the permissible limit (< [Formula: see text]). Therefore, the risk of carcinogenicity and noncarcinogenicity of PAEs in juices does not have adverse effects on human health.

Groundwater contamination pathways of phthalates and bisphenol A: origin, characteristics, transport, and fate - A review

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) or phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA) are emerging organic contaminants (EOCs) that may harm biota and human health. Humans can be exposed to these contaminants by drinking water consumption from water sources such as groundwater. Before their presence in aquifer systems, phthalates and BPA can be found in many matrices due to anthropogenic activities, which result in long-term transport to groundwater reservoirs by different mechanisms and reaction processes. The worldwide occurrence of phthalates and BPA concentrations in groundwater have ranged from 0.1 × 10^-3 to 3 203.33 µg L^-1 and from 0.09 × 10^-3 to 228.04 µg L^-1, respectively. Therefore, the aim of this review is to describe the groundwater contamination pathways of phthalates and BPA from the main environmental sources to groundwater. Overall, this article provides an overview that integrates phthalate and BPA environmental cycling, from their origin to human reception via groundwater consumption. Additionally, in this review, the readers can use the information provided as a principal basis for existing policy ratification and for governments to develop legislation that may incorporate these endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) as priority contaminants. Indeed, this may trigger the enactment of regulatory guidelines and public policies that help to reduce the exposure of these EDCs in humans by drinking water consumption.

Health Risk Assessment of Trace Metals in Bottled Water Purchased from Various Retail Stores in Pretoria, South Africa

Bottled water is one of the fastest growing commercial products in both developing and developed countries owing to the believe that it is safe and pure. In South Africa, over the years, there has been an increase in the sale of bottled water due to the perceived notion that water supplied by the government may not be safe for human consumption. This study investigated the concentrations of trace metals and the physicochemical properties of bottled water purchased from various supermarkets (registered and unregistered) in Pretoria with a view to determining the health risk that may be associated with the levels of trace metals resulting from the consumption of the bottled water. Twelve commonly available different brands of bottled water were purchased and analysed for trace-metal content using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The water samples were also analysed for various physicochemical parameters. The health risk was assessed using the target hazard quotient (THQ). For all the bottled water, the highest concentration of all the elements was recorded for Fe. The values reported for Cr, Ni and Pb were above the limit recommended by World Health Organization. The pH values ranged from 4.67 to 7.26. Three of the samples had pH values in the acidic region below the permissible standard of 6.8-8.0 set by the International Bottled Water Association (IBWA). The target hazard quotient calculated for the water samples showed a minimum risk for Pb, Cr and Ni. The study showed the need to adhere to a strict compliance standard considering the fact that South Africa has rich natural mineral elements, which may have played a role in the high levels of trace metals reported from some of the water samples.

Occurrence and seasonal disparity of emerging endocrine disrupting chemicals in a drinking water supply system and associated health risk

Contamination of drinking water with endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) raises concerns over the security and long-term sustainability of clean water supplies as well as human exposure via daily water intake. In this study, the seasonal disparity and occurrence of six phthalates and bisphenol-A in the drinking water supply system and associated health-risk were examined. The detection frequencies of the ∑6PAEs ranged from 24 to 100% in the winter whereas; in summer it is below the detection limit up to 100%. DEHP was the most prevalent phthalate congener ranging from 1.14 to 8351.85 µg/L (winter) and 0.552 to 410.29 µg/L (summer) surpassing the permissible limit. However, BPA concentrations were found under the permissible limit. The results suggested that PAEs concentration displayed significant seasonal variations with the highest in winter and the lowest in summer. The exposure to PAEs and BPA from drinking water was assessed, indicating a possible health risk to humans with a hazard quotient (HQ) > 1 for DEHP only. The findings necessitate an immediate scrutiny of these EDCs in drinking water supply system and are critical for implementing effective technologies at the WTP scale to ensure the quality and safety of drinking water to ascertain human and environmental health.

The hazardous threat of Bisphenol A: Toxicity, detection and remediation

Bisphenol A (or BPA) is a toxic endocrine disrupting chemical that is released into the environment through modern manufacturing practices. BPA can disrupt the production, function and activity of endogenous hormones causing irregularity in the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal glands and also the pituitary-adrenal function. BPA has immuno-suppression activity and can downregulate T cells and antioxidant genes. The genotoxicity and cytotoxicity of BPA is paramount and therefore, there is an immediate need to properly detect and remediate its influence. In this review, we discuss the toxic effects of BPA on different metabolic systems in the human body, followed by its mechanism of action. Various novel detection techniques (LC-MS, GC-MS, capillary electrophoresis, immunoassay and sensors) involving a pretreatment step (liquid-liquid microextraction and molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction) have also been detailed. Mechanisms of various remediation strategies, including biodegradation using native enzymes, membrane separation processes, photocatalytic oxidation, use of nanosorbents and thermal degradation has been detailed. An overview of the global regulations pertaining to BPA has been presented. More investigations are required on the efficiency of integrated remediation technologies rather than standalone methods for BPA removal. The effect of processing operations on BPA in food matrices is also warranted to restrict its transport into food products.

Water consumption practices in university campuses. The experience of the National Autonomous University of Mexico

The Water Network of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (Red del Agua UNAM) and the Program for the Management, Use, and Reuse of Water in UNAM (PUMAGUA) carried out a survey with the aim of knowing the water consumption practices of the university community in its campuses located in the Metropolitan Area of the Valley of Mexico. A sample of 2,095 students, academics, administrative and support staff participated in this survey. The results show that 74% of the sample consume bottled water and that their average spending is between 0.50 and 1 dollar per day (11 to 20 Mexican pesos). The rates of bottled water consumption contrasts with the perception about water quality, since only 13% consider water quality distributed in the water fountains located within university campuses as 'poor' or 'very poor'. The rates of bottled water consumption among university community are similar to the ones reported by studies in Mexico City and in Mexico as a whole, even though UNAM has a Water Observatory that allows people to know in real time water quantity and quality in university campuses.