Wastewater dissolved organic matter: characteristics and sorptive capabilities

Structural analysis and characterization of biosolids. A case study of biosolids from wastewater treatment plants in Western Greece

The great interest of modern societies in the reuse of wastes opens up new horizons in the field of wastewater, as well. In particular, the treated sludge resulting from a Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP) is dealed with a new perspective in the context of circular economy. The aim of this study is the characterization of its complex matrix, and the evaluation for reuse. Biosolids (BS) collected from four urban WWTPs in the Western region of Greece i.e. Agrinio (AG), Amaliada (AM), Aegio (AE) and Itea (IT). Analytical and spectroscopical methods namely TGA, ICP-OES, Fluorescence, SEM/EDS, XRD, FT-IR and NMR were the means that served this purpose. SEM along with XRD proved the amorphous nature of BS. The dominant metals detected in the samples are: Fe, Zn, Mn, with concentrations which meet the guidelines included in 86/278/EEC Directive. The inorganic load is of great importance, along with their humic acid content, adding value at the samples as fertilizers. BS appeared to be rich in organic matter with long aliphatic chains and numerous functional groups, as capturedin FT-IR spectra. The applied methods form an analytical protocol of the BS mapping, highlighting its potential as a material to be utilized in agriculture.

NMR spectroscopy of wastewater: A review, case study, and future potential

NMR spectroscopy is arguably the most powerful tool for the study of molecular structures and interactions, and is increasingly being applied to environmental research, such as the study of wastewater. With over 97% of the planet's water being saltwater, and two thirds of freshwater being frozen in the ice caps and glaciers, there is a significant need to maintain and reuse the remaining 1%, which is a precious resource, critical to the sustainability of most life on Earth. Sanitation and reutilization of wastewater is an important method of water conservation, especially in arid regions, making the understanding of wastewater itself, and of its treatment processes, a highly relevant area of environmental research. Here, the benefits, challenges and subtleties of using NMR spectroscopy for the analysis of wastewater are considered. First, the techniques available to overcome the specific challenges arising from the nature of wastewater (which is a complex and dilute matrix), including an examination of sample preparation and NMR techniques (such as solvent suppression), in both the solid and solution states, are discussed. Then, the arsenal of available NMR techniques for both structure elucidation (e.g., heteronuclear, multidimensional NMR, homonuclear scalar coupling-based experiments) and the study of intermolecular interactions (e.g., diffusion, nuclear Overhauser and saturation transfer-based techniques) in wastewater are examined. Examples of wastewater NMR studies from the literature are reviewed and potential areas for future research are identified. Organized by nucleus, this review includes the common heteronuclei (¹³C, ¹⁵N, ¹⁹F, ³¹P, ²⁹Si) as well as other environmentally relevant nuclei and metals such as ²⁷Al, ⁵¹V, ²⁰⁷Pb and ¹¹³Cd, among others. Further, the potential of additional NMR methods such as comprehensive multiphase NMR, NMR microscopy and hyphenated techniques (for example, LC-SPE-NMR-MS) for advancing the current understanding of wastewater are discussed. In addition, a case study that combines natural abundance (i.e. non-concentrated), targeted and non-targeted NMR to characterize wastewater, along with in vivo based NMR to understand its toxicity, is included. The study demonstrates that, when applied comprehensively, NMR can provide unique insights into not just the structure, but also potential impacts, of wastewater and wastewater treatment processes. Finally, low-field NMR, which holds considerable future potential for on-site wastewater monitoring, is briefly discussed. In summary, NMR spectroscopy is one of the most versatile tools in modern science, with abilities to study all phases (gases, liquids, gels and solids), chemical structures, interactions, interfaces, toxicity and much more. The authors hope this review will inspire more scientists to embrace NMR, given its huge potential for both wastewater analysis in particular and environmental research in general.

Sewage sludge and solid residues from biogas production derived biochar as an effective bio-waste adsorbent of fulvic acids from water or wastewater

Due to environmental concern, direct utilization of sewage sludge or residues from biogas production is restricted. Conversion of problematic bio-wastes into biochars can be a very effective solution. In the presented study, the adsorption of fulvic acids onto series of biochars produced from bio-wastes such as sewage sludge, residues from biogas production, and plant (Miscanthus sp.) were performed to examine the behavior of biochars in the environment and interactions with fulvic acids as the representatives of dissolved organic matter. The results clearly indicate that the highest excess of fulvic acids, 93-96 mg g^-1, was chemisorbed onto biochar obtained specifically from sewage sludge. The mechanism of the adsorption was independent from applied biochar feedstock. Monolayer coverage was dominant onto all biochars. Generally, adsorption was assumed to be controlled by polar interactions between fulvic acids and the biochars or pre-adsorbed and residual fulvic acids molecules (which were dominant) and the strong π-π interactions. The obtained high values of the adsorption capacity of sewage sludge derived biochars confirmed that thermal treatment is a very effective tool of bio-waste management.

Treated Wastewater Irrigation—A Review

As the most important resource for life, water has been a central issue on the international agenda for several decades. Yet, the world’s supply of clean freshwater is steadily decreasing due to extensive agricultural demand for irrigated lands. Therefore, water resources should be used with greater efficiency, and the use of non-traditional water resources, such as Treated Wastewater (TW), should be increased. Reusing TW could be an alternative option to increase water resources. Thus, many countries have decided to turn wastewater into an irrigation resource to help meet urban demand and address water shortages. However, because of the nature of that water, there are potential problems associated with its use in irrigation. Some of the major concerns are health hazards, salinity build-up, and toxicity hazards. The objectives of this comprehensive literature review are to illuminate the importance of using TW in irrigation as an alternative freshwater source and to assess the effects of its use on soil fertility and other soil properties, plants, and public health. The literature review reveals that TW reuse has become part of the extension program for boosting water resource utilization. However, the uncontrolled application of such waters has many unfavorable effects on both soils and plants, especially in the long-term. To reduce these unfavorable effects when using TW in irrigation, proper guidelines for wastewater reuse and management should be followed to limit negative effects significantly.

A review of the impact of wastewater on the fate of pesticides in soils: Effect of some soil and solution properties

Reuse of wastewater (WW) as an agricultural irrigation source is being considered with increasing interest, mainly in arid and semiarid zones. However, due to the complex nature of WW its reuse can have an impact on the fate of the pesticides added to the soils and crops for pest control. This review provides a detailed insight about the main processes involved in pesticide-soil-WW interactions (adsorption/desorption, degradation, transport, plant uptake and field assays) focusing on the role of dissolved organic matter and salt content in the mentioned processes. The influence of pesticide and soil properties in these processes is also discussed. The review explores current research gaps in the pesticide-soil-WW interactions and identifies areas that merit further research, providing a perspective for further scientific exploration.

Assessment of soil buffer capacity on nutrients and pharmaceuticals in nature-based solution applications

The ability of a soil to sustain infiltration rates and to attenuate pollutants is critical for the design and operation of Managed Aquifer Recharge/Soil Aquifer Treatment and phyto-treatment schemes, also referred to as "Blue Infrastructures". We investigated the buffering capacity of a sediment sample and a peat soil sample for nutrients and selected pharmaceutical compounds and its evolution under continuous infiltration of secondary treated wastewater (TWW) in column experiments. Samples were obtained from two blue infrastructures, the Sant'Alessio Induced River Bank Filtration plant and the San Niccolò large-scale phyto-treatment plant in Italy, and were mainly different in their organic carbon contents (0.9 and 48%, respectively). In the column experiments, a constant infiltration rate of about 0.5 L/d was maintained for 6 months. After 4 months of operation, diclofenac and carbamazepine were spiked into the TWW to evaluate their fate. Water quality was monitored by periodic water sampling from the column inflow, at sampling ports along the column length, and at the outflow. Hydraulic conductivity (K) was also monitored. The hydraulic conductivity of the Sant'Alessio sediment decreased by a factor of 10 during the first 10 days of infiltration and then stabilized, while for the San Niccolò K (initially lower) remained constant for 50 days until it decreased following a change of the redox condition in the column. The different redox conditions, due to the two different soils tested, influenced also the concentration and mobility of PO₄^3-, Fe, Mn, and NPOC, and the speciation of the redox sensitive elements (nitrogen and sulfur). NOPC and phosphate were enriched during the filtration through San Niccolò peat soil (from 2 to 4 times, respectively), while they were buffered by the Sant'Alessio sediment (from 0.2 to 0.4 times, respectively). Diclofenac removal (69% and below 20% for San Niccolò and Sant'Alessio, respectively) was related to sorption and degradation processes and it was lower than the removal of carbamazepine in both soils (76 and 35%). The buffer capacity differences between the two soils were higher for diclofenac (62%) than carbamazepine (35%). Nevertheless, since no apparent degradation of carbamazepine was detected in both soils, its persistence in the soil may have a larger impact in case of desorption, posing contamination risk to groundwater. The results highlight the importance of the soils or sediments to be used as medium in such nature-based solutions for their operations. They also offer an approach to, e.g., tailor man-made soil layers in infiltration basins. We strongly suggest that soil characteristics and test duration are carefully considered in designing these infrastructures, when nature-based processes are the choice for dealing with reuse of treated wastewater management issues.

Qualitative analysis of activated sludge using FT-IR technique

The ability to measure and control the composition of activated sludge is an important issue, aiming at evaluating the effectiveness of changes occurring in the sludge, what determines its usefulness to treat wastewater. In this research, diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform (FTIR–DRIFT) technique was used, which relies on measuring the reflectance of the powdered substance’s surface layer and capturing spectra in range of infrared wave. First, spectra correlation table of the substances mostly occurring in wastewater was developed to assess the main components of the tested samples of activated sludge. The simplest compounds containing functional groups characteristic for particular chemical classes were chosen: peptides (peptone and albumin), fats (glycerin and fatty acids), carbohydrates (glucose and sucrose), nitrogen compounds (NaNO₃ and NH₄SO₄), sulfur compounds (Na₂SO₄ and Na₂S₂O₃), silicate, etc. The spectra of those substances were captured and characteristic absorption bands for respective bonds in the function groups were assigned. Second, samples of activated sludge from lab-scale membrane bioreactors (MBRs), which purifies petroleum wastewater, were taken. Samples were properly prepared (lyophilization and homogenization) and their spectra were captured. During spectra analysis, previously developed correlation table was used. In obtained spectra of activated sludge, absorption bonds characteristic for amides, peptides, carbohydrates, fats, and aliphatic was identified. The spectra profile of the sludge sample from MBR feed with petroleum wastewater was slightly different from the control MBR sample’s spectra. Intensity of bands in the area characteristic for aliphatic compounds and phenols was clearly higher. This study proves the usefulness of FT-IR technique to observe changes in the chemical composition of activated sludge.

Three-dimensional printed knotted reactors enabling highly sensitive differentiation of silver nanoparticles and ions in aqueous environmental samples

Whether silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) persist or release silver ions (Ag(+)) when discharged into a natural environment has remained an unresolved issue. In this study, we employed a low-cost stereolithographic three-dimensional printing (3DP) technology to fabricate the angle-defined knotted reactors (KRs) to construct a simple differentiation scheme for quantitative assessment of Ag(+) ions and AgNPs in municipal wastewater samples. We chose xanthan/phosphate-buffered saline as a dispersion medium for in situ stabilization of the two silver species, while also facilitating their extraction from complicated wastewater matrices. After method optimization, we measured extraction efficiencies of 54.5 and 32.3% for retaining Ag(+) ions and AgNPs, respectively, in the printed KR (768-turn), with detection limits (DLs) of 0.86 and 0.52 ng L(-1) when determining Ag(+) ions and AgNPs, respectively (sample run at pH 11 without a rinse solution), and 0.86 ng L(-1) when determining Ag(+) ions alone (sample run at pH 12 with a 1.5-mL rinse solution). The proposed scheme is tolerant of the wastewater matrix and provides more reliable differentiation between Ag(+)/AgNPs than does a conventional filtration method. The concept and applicability of adopting 3DP technology to renew traditional KR devices were evidently proven by means of these significantly improved analytical performance. Our analytical data suggested that the concentrations of Ag(+) ions and AgNPs in the tested industrial wastewater sample were both higher than those in domestic wastewater, implying that industrial activity might be a main source of environmental silver species, rather than domestic discharge from AgNP-containing products.

Complexation of trace organic contaminants with fractionated dissolved organic matter: implications for mass spectrometric quantification

Interaction with aqueous phase dissolved organic matter (DOM) can alter the fate of trace organic contaminants of emerging concern once they enter the water cycle. In order to probe possible DOM binding mechanisms and their consequences for contaminant detection and quantification in natural waters, a set of laboratory experiments was conducted with aqueous solutions containing various operationally-defined "hydrophilic" and "hydrophobic" freshwater DOM fractions isolated by resin adsorption techniques from reference Suwannee River natural organic matter (SROM). Per unit mass of SROM carbon, hydrophobic acids (HoA) comprised the largest C fraction (0.63±0.029), followed by hydrophilic-neutrals (HiN, 0.11±0.01) and acids (HiA, 0.09±0.017). Aqueous solutions comprising 8mgL(-1) DOC of each SROM fraction were spiked with a concentration range (10-1000μgL(-1)) of bisphenol A (BPA), carbamazepine (CBZ), or ibuprofen (IBU) as model target compounds in 24mM NH4HCO3 background electrolyte at pH 7.4. Contaminant interaction with the SROM fractions was probed using fluorescence spectroscopy, and effects on quantitative analysis of the target compounds were measured using direct aqueous-injection liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Total quenching was greater for the hydrophilic fractions of SROM and associations were principally with protein-like and fulvic acid-like constituents. Whereas LC-MS/MS recoveries indicated relatively weak interactions with most SROM factions, an important exception was the HiA fraction, which diminished recovery of CBZ and IBU by ca. 30% and 70%, respectively, indicating relatively strong molecular interactions.

Quantifying PPCP interaction with dissolved organic matter in aqueous solution: combined use of fluorescence quenching and tandem mass spectrometry

The documented presence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in water sources has prompted a global interest in understanding their environmental fate. Dissolved organic matter (DOM) can potentially alter the fate of these contaminants in aqueous systems by forming contaminant-DOM complexes. In-situ measurements were made to assess the interactions between three common PPCP contaminants and two distinct DOM sources: a wastewater treatment plant (WWOM) and the Suwannee River, GA (SROM). Aqueous DOM solutions (8.0 mg L(-1) C, pH 7.4) were spiked with a range of concentrations of bisphenol-A, carbamazepine and ibuprofen to assess the DOM fluorophores quenched by PPCP interaction in excitation-emission matrices (EEM). Interaction effects on target analyte (PPCP) concentrations were also quantified using direct aqueous injection ultra high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). At low bisphenol-A concentration, WWOM fluorescence was quenched in an EEM region attributed to microbial byproduct-like and humic acid-like DOM components, whereas carbamazepine and ibuprofen quenched fulvic acid-like fluorophores. Fluorescence quenching of SROM by bisphenol-A and carbamazepine was centered on humic acid-like components, whereas ibuprofen quenched the fulvic acid-like fluorophores. Nearly complete LC-MS/MS recovery of all three contaminants was obtained, irrespective of analyte structure and DOM source, indicating relatively weak PPCP-DOM bonding interactions. The results suggest that presence of DOM at environmentally-relevant concentration can give rise to PPCP interactions that could potentially affect their environmental transport, but these DOM-contaminant interactions do not suppress the accurate assessment of target analyte concentrations by aqueous injection LC-MS/MSMS.

The role of the characteristics of humic substances in binding with benzo[h]quinoline

The binding constants (K(DOC)) of the mixture of benzo[h]quinoline and its protonated analog, benzo[h]quinolinium, to four types of humic substances obtained from the International Humic Substances Society were determined by the fluorescence quenching method. A simple mixing model was used to eliminate the fluorescent interference from the minor analog in the solution and to deduce K(mix), which represents the overall binding as the sum of that for the individual analogs. The characteristics of humic substances, especially their hydrophobicity and aromaticity, established by principal component analysis of structural and elemental compositions, were the main determinants of the binding affinity with both benzo[h]quinoline and benzo[h]quinolinium (K(BQ) and K (BQH+) across a range of pH values. The strongest overall affinity of benzo[h]quinoline for humic substances is observed near pH 4 and with more hydrophobic humic substances, which suggests possible choices in attempts at remediation of benzo[h]quinoline containing particles with humic substances.

Spectroscopic and chromatographic characterization of wastewater organic matter from a biological treatment plant

Spectroscopic and chromatographic changes in dissolved organic matter (DOM) characteristics of influent and treated sewage were investigated for a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) with a biological advanced process. Refractory DOM (R-DOM) was defined as the dissolved organic carbon concentrations of the samples after 28-day incubation for this study. Specific UV absorbance (SUVA), hydrophobicity, synchronous fluorescence spectra and molecular weight (MW) distributions were selected as DOM characteristics. The percent distribution of R-DOM for the effluent was much higher than that of the influent, indicating that biodegradable DOM was selectively removed during the process. Comparison of the influent versus the effluent sewage revealed that SUVA, fulvic-like fluorescence (FLF), humic-like fluorescence (HLF), the apparent MW values were enhanced during the treatment. This suggests that more aromatic and humic-like compounds were enriched during the biological process. No significant difference in the DOM characteristics was observed between the original effluent (i.e., prior to the incubation) and the influent sewage after the incubation. This result suggests that the major changes in wastewater DOM characteristics occurring during the biological advanced process were similar to those for simple microbial incubation.

Binding characteristics of perylene, phenanthrene and anthracene to different DOM fractions from lake water

Six hydrophobic and hydrophilic fractions were isolated using XAD-8 and XAD-4 resins, and were extensively characterized. Partition coefficients of perylene, phenanthrene and anthracene binding to the six fractions were determined by fluorescence quenching titration. The Kdoc values obtained for the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) binding to the hydrophobic fractions were larger than those to the hydrophilic fractions. Nonlinear Stern-Volmer plots were observed when binding phenanthrene and anthracene to some hydrophilic fraction samples, suggesting saturation of polar interaction binding sites. A significant correlation of logKdoc values with molecular weights and molar absorptivities at 280 nm was observed, while atomic ratio of C/H was found to be a poor indicator for aromaticity. Other structural descriptors such as paraffinic carbon and polarity influenced the DOM-fraction ability to bind PAHs. Different interaction mechanisms underlying binding of the different fractions to the PAHs were also discussed.

Part IV-sorption of hydrophobic organic contaminants

BACKGROUND, AIM, AND SCOPE

Behavior of hydrophobic organic contaminants (HOCs) in the environment has attracted research interest for more than three decades. It has been clearly concluded that humic substances (HSs), which are the main content of soil/sediment organic matter (SOM) and dissolved organic matter (DOM), controls the sorption of HOCs in soils/sediments. In order to predict the movement of HOCs in the environment, many studies have been conducted to relate HOCs sorption characteristics with HS chemical properties. However, no consensus has been reached on precisely what HS chemical properties regulate HOC sorption, indicating that other HS properties (besides chemical properties) may also control HOC-HS interactions.

MAIN FEATURES

Increasing amounts of research reveal that SOM physical properties can affect the accessibility of HOCs to SOM sorption sites and thus are of great importance for altering HOC-SOM interactions. Therefore, different from the past reviews on HOCs sorption in soils/sediments, this current one emphasizes physical conformation of HSs for both solid and dissolved forms.

RESULTS

SOM chemical properties such as aromatic content, aliphatic content, polarity, and molecular weight have all been reported to affect HOC sorption. No general model has been proposed to predict SOM sorption characteristics from any individual chemical properties. Physical conformations of both solid SOM and DOM are of great importance for altering HOC-SOM interactions. The terms of glassy and rubbery domains have been used to describe physical conformations of solid SOM, and efficiency of chemical oxidation and glassy-rubbery transition temperature are indirect methods to describe SOM rigidity. Various techniques and parameters have been employed to study DOM conformation, such as microscopic images, pyrene-probing hydrophobic region, surface tension, and zeta potential. However, DOM nonideal sorption properties are not properly regarded.

DISCUSSION

HOC-DOM interactions are investigated using solubility enhancement, gas-phase partitioning, fluorescence quenching, and dialysis equilibration methods. The limitations of all the methods are discussed in this review. Relatively, a dialysis equilibration experiment is a better design to study the true HOC-DOM interactions.

CONCLUSIONS

Physical conformation of SOM are of the same importance as, if not more important than, SOM chemical properties for HOC sorption. Although increasing amounts of research focus on SOM physical conformation regarding HOC sorption, proper mathematical description of its physical conformation and the relationship between SOM physical conformation and its sorption properties are still unclear.

RECOMMENDATIONS AND PERSPECTIVES

Quantitative characterization of SOM conformation regarding its sorption properties with HOCs is a topic worth of further research. The HOC-DOM interactions could not be adequately addressed because of the inappropriate research approach; thus, a reevaluation of HOC-DOM interactions is also required.

Removal of dissolved organic matter by granular-activated carbon adsorption as a pretreatment to reverse osmosis of membrane bioreactor effluents

The adsorption of dissolved organic matter (DOM) on granular-activated carbon (GAC) as a pretreatment to reverse osmosis (RO) desalination of membrane bioreactor (MBR) effluents was studied in lab- and pilot-scale columns. The pattern and efficiency of DOM adsorption and fate of the hydrophobic (HPO), transphilic (TPI) and hydrophilic (HPI) fractions were characterized, as well as their impact on organic fouling of the RO membranes. Relatively low DOM adsorption capacity and low intensity of adsorption were observed in batch studies. Continuous adsorption experiments performed within a range of hydraulic velocities of 0.9-12m/h depicted permissible values within the mass transfer zone up to 1.6m/h. The breakthrough curves within this range displayed a non-adsorbable fraction of 24+/-6% and a biodegradable fraction of 49+/-12%. Interestingly, the adsorbable fraction remained almost constant ( approximately 30%) in the entire hydraulic range studied. Comparative analysis by HPO interaction chromatography showed a steady removal (63-66%) of the HPO fraction. SUVA index and Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectra indicated that DOM changes during the adsorption phase were mainly due to elution of the more HPI components. GAC pretreatment in pilot-scale columns resulted in 80-90% DOM removal from MBR effluents, which in turn stabilized membrane permeability and increased permeate quality. FTIR analysis indicated that the residual DOM present in the RO permeate, regardless of the pretreatment, was mainly of HPI character (e.g., low-molecular-weight humics linked to polysaccharides and proteins). The DOM removed by GAC pretreatment is composed mainly of HPO and biodegradable components, which constitutes the fraction primarily causing organic fouling.