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Lim JY, Templeton SP. Regulation of lung inflammation by adiponectin. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1244586. [PMID: 37724101 PMCID: PMC10505393 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1244586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 08/21/2023] [Indexed: 09/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Adiponectin is an insulin sensitizing hormone that also plays a role in the regulation of inflammation. Although adiponectin can exert pro-inflammatory effects, more studies have reported anti-inflammatory effects, even in non-adipose tissues such as the lung. Obesity is considered an inflammatory disease, is a risk factor for lung diseases, and is associated with decreased levels of plasma adiponectin. The results of recent studies have suggested that adiponectin exerts anti-inflammatory activity in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma and invasive fungal infection. The signaling receptors of adiponectin, AdipoR1 and AdipoR2, are expressed by epithelial cells, endothelial cells, and immune cells in the lung. In this mini-review, we discuss the anti-inflammatory mechanisms of adiponectin in lung cells and tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Steven P. Templeton
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Indiana University School of Medicine-Terre Haute, Terre Haute, IN, United States
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2
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Mohammadi A, Higazy R, Gauda EB. PGC-1α activity and mitochondrial dysfunction in preterm infants. Front Physiol 2022; 13:997619. [PMID: 36225305 PMCID: PMC9548560 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.997619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Extremely low gestational age neonates (ELGANs) are born in a relatively hyperoxic environment with weak antioxidant defenses, placing them at high risk for mitochondrial dysfunction affecting multiple organ systems including the nervous, respiratory, ocular, and gastrointestinal systems. The brain and lungs are highly affected by mitochondrial dysfunction and dysregulation in the neonate, causing white matter injury (WMI) and bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), respectively. Adequate mitochondrial function is important in providing sufficient energy for organ development as it relates to alveolarization and axonal myelination and decreasing oxidative stress via reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) detoxification. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1 alpha (PGC-1α) is a master regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis and function. Since mitochondrial dysfunction is at the root of WMI and BPD pathobiology, exploring therapies that can regulate PGC-1α activity may be beneficial. This review article describes several promising therapeutic agents that can mitigate mitochondrial dysfunction through direct and indirect activation and upregulation of the PGC-1α pathway. Metformin, resveratrol, omega 3 fatty acids, montelukast, L-citrulline, and adiponectin are promising candidates that require further pre-clinical and clinical studies to understand their efficacy in decreasing the burden of disease from WMI and BPD in preterm infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atefeh Mohammadi
- The Hospital for Sick Children, Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics and Translational Medicine Program, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Randa Higazy
- The Hospital for Sick Children, Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics and Translational Medicine Program, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Estelle B. Gauda
- The Hospital for Sick Children, Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics and Translational Medicine Program, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- *Correspondence: Estelle B. Gauda,
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3
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Aslani MR, Amani M, Moghadas F, Ghobadi H. Adipolin and IL-6 Serum Levels in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. Adv Respir Med 2022; 90:391-398. [PMID: 36136851 PMCID: PMC9717330 DOI: 10.3390/arm90050049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2022] [Revised: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Objective(s): One of the adipokines that have insulin-sensitizing properties is adipolin, whose reduced levels have been reported in obesity, oxidative stress, and inflammation. The present study investigated serum interleukin-6 (IL-6) and adipolin levels in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) patients. Method: A control case study included 60 COPD patients and 30 healthy subjects in the research and measured adipolin and IL-6 serum levels. In addition, serum adipolin levels in COPD patients were assessed according to the GOLD grade. The relationship between serum adipolin levels and study variables were also analyzed. Results: The results showed reduced adipolin levels in COPD patients compared with healthy individuals (p < 0.001). Furthermore, increased levels of IL-6 were evident in the COPD group compared to the control group (p < 0.001). Adipolin serum levels were positively correlated with PFTs and negatively correlated with IL-6 levels. Conclusion: Decreased adipolin levels enhanced disease severity in COPD patients. It seems that the existence of a significant relationship between adipolin and IL-6 may indicate the role of adipolin in the pathophysiology of COPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Reza Aslani
- Lung Diseases Research Center, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil 5618953141, Iran
- Applied Biomedical Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad 9177948564, Iran
| | - Mojtaba Amani
- Department of Biophysics, School of Medicine, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil 5618953141, Iran
| | - Faranak Moghadas
- Faculty of Medicine, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil 5618953141, Iran
| | - Hassan Ghobadi
- Lung Diseases Research Center, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil 5618953141, Iran
- Correspondence: or
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Webber T, Ronacher K, Conradie-Smit M, Kleynhans L. Interplay Between the Immune and Endocrine Systems in the Lung: Implications for TB Susceptibility. Front Immunol 2022; 13:829355. [PMID: 35273609 PMCID: PMC8901994 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.829355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of the endocrine system on the immune response, especially in the lung, remains poorly understood. Hormones play a crucial role in the development, homeostasis, metabolism, and response to the environment of cells and tissues. Major infectious and metabolic diseases, such as tuberculosis and diabetes, continue to converge, necessitating the development of a clearer understanding of the immune and endocrine interactions that occur in the lung. Research in bacterial respiratory infections is at a critical point, where the limitations in identifying and developing antibiotics is becoming more profound. Hormone receptors on alveolar and immune cells may provide a plethora of targets for host-directed therapy. This review discusses the interactions between the immune and endocrine systems in the lung. We describe hormone receptors currently identified in the lungs, focusing on the effect hormones have on the pulmonary immune response. Altered endocrine responses in the lung affect the balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory immune responses and play a role in the response to infection in the lung. While some hormones, such as leptin, resistin and lipocalin-2 promote pro-inflammatory responses and immune cell infiltration, others including adiponectin and ghrelin reduce inflammation and promote anti-inflammatory cell responses. Furthermore, type 2 diabetes as a major endocrine disease presents with altered immune responses leading to susceptibility to lung infections, such as tuberculosis. A better understanding of these interactions will expand our knowledge of the mechanisms at play in susceptibility to infectious diseases and may reveal opportunities for the development of host-directed therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tariq Webber
- DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Katharina Ronacher
- Translational Research Institute, Mater Research Institute - The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Marli Conradie-Smit
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Léanie Kleynhans
- DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
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5
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Nielsen MB, Nordestgaard BG, Benn M, Çolak Y. Plasma adiponectin and risk of asthma: observational analysis, genetic Mendelian randomisation and meta-analysis. Thorax 2021; 77:1070-1077. [PMID: 34949725 DOI: 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2021-217675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Adiponectin, an adipocyte-secreted protein-hormone with inflammatory properties, has a potentially important role in the development and progression of asthma. Unravelling whether adiponectin is a causal risk factor for asthma is an important issue to clarify as adiponectin could be a potential novel drug target for the treatment of asthma. OBJECTIVE We tested the hypothesis that plasma adiponectin is associated observationally and causally (using genetic variants as instrumental variables) with risk of asthma. METHODS In the Copenhagen General Population Study, we did an observational analysis in 28 845 individuals (2278 asthma cases) with plasma adiponectin measurements, and a genetic one-sample Mendelian randomisation analysis in 94 868 individuals (7128 asthma cases) with 4 genetic variants. Furthermore, in the UK Biobank, we did a genetic two-sample Mendelian randomisation analysis in 462 933 individuals (53 598 asthma cases) with 12 genetic variants. Lastly, we meta-analysed the genetic findings. RESULTS While a 1 unit log-transformed higher plasma adiponectin in the Copenhagen General Population Study was associated with an observational OR of 1.65 (95% CI 1.29 to 2.08) for asthma, the corresponding genetic causal OR was 1.03 (95% CI 0.75 to 1.42). The genetic causal OR for asthma in the UK Biobank was 1.00 (95% CI 0.99 to 1.00). Lastly, genetic meta-analysis confirmed lack of association between genetically high plasma adiponectin and causal OR for asthma. CONCLUSION Observationally, high plasma adiponectin is associated with increased risk of asthma; however, genetic evidence could not support a causal association between plasma adiponectin and asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Booth Nielsen
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Copenhagen University Hospital - Herlev and Gentofte, Copenhagen, Denmark.,The Copenhagen General Population Study, Copenhagen University Hospital - Herlev and Gentofte, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Børge G Nordestgaard
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Copenhagen University Hospital - Herlev and Gentofte, Copenhagen, Denmark.,The Copenhagen General Population Study, Copenhagen University Hospital - Herlev and Gentofte, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Marianne Benn
- The Copenhagen General Population Study, Copenhagen University Hospital - Herlev and Gentofte, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Copenhagen University Hospital - Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Yunus Çolak
- The Copenhagen General Population Study, Copenhagen University Hospital - Herlev and Gentofte, Copenhagen, Denmark .,Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Department of Respiratory Medicine, Copenhagen University Hospital - Herlev and Gentofte, Copenhagen, Denmark
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6
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Regulatory Peptides in Asthma. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222413656. [PMID: 34948451 PMCID: PMC8707337 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222413656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Revised: 12/18/2021] [Accepted: 12/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Numerous regulatory peptides play a critical role in the pathogenesis of airway inflammation, airflow obstruction and hyperresponsiveness, which are hallmarks of asthma. Some of them exacerbate asthma symptoms, such as neuropeptide Y and tachykinins, while others have ameliorating properties, such as nociception, neurotensin or β-defensin 2. Interacting with peptide receptors located in the lungs or on immune cells opens up new therapeutic possibilities for the treatment of asthma, especially when it is resistant to available therapies. This article provides a concise review of the most important and current findings regarding the involvement of regulatory peptides in asthma pathology.
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7
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Kearns SM, Ahern KW, Patrie JT, Horton WB, Harris TE, Kadl A. Reduced adiponectin levels in patients with COVID-19 acute respiratory failure: A case-control study. Physiol Rep 2021; 9:e14843. [PMID: 33904656 PMCID: PMC8077126 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.14843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Revised: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/28/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Hypoadiponectinemia is speculated to play a key role in the relationship between obesity and COVID-19 respiratory failure. However, only one study has examined adiponectin levels in COVID-19 patients, and none have investigated adiponectin levels strictly in patients with acute respiratory failure. In this study, we performed a retrospective case-control study of adipokine levels in patients with acute respiratory failure caused by either COVID-19 or other viral/bacterial source. All patients with COVID-19 respiratory failure in the University of Virginia Biorepository and Tissue Research database were included. We also selected patients with non-COVID-19 infectious respiratory failure from the same biorepository to serve as a comparison cohort. Plasma adipokine levels were measured on three occasions during the first 72 hours of hospitalization. Twelve patients with COVID-19 respiratory failure and 17 patients with other infectious respiratory failure were studied. Adiponectin levels were significantly lower in patients with COVID-19 respiratory failure, even after adjustment for age, sex, BMI, and other covariates. In conclusion, adiponectin levels appear to be reduced in COVID-19 respiratory failure. Larger studies are needed to confirm this report.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean M. Kearns
- Department of MedicineUniversity of Virginia School of MedicineCharlottesvilleVAUSA
| | - Katelyn W. Ahern
- Department of PharmacologyUniversity of Virginia School of MedicineCharlottesvilleVAUSA
- Eli Lilly and CompanyIndianapolisINUSA
| | - James T. Patrie
- Division of BiostatisticsDepartment of Public Health SciencesUniversity of Virginia School of MedicineCharlottesvilleVAUSA
| | - William B. Horton
- Department of MedicineUniversity of Virginia School of MedicineCharlottesvilleVAUSA
- Division of Endocrinology and MetabolismUniversity of Virginia School of MedicineCharlottesvilleVAUSA
| | - Thurl E. Harris
- Department of PharmacologyUniversity of Virginia School of MedicineCharlottesvilleVAUSA
| | - Alexandra Kadl
- Department of MedicineUniversity of Virginia School of MedicineCharlottesvilleVAUSA
- Department of PharmacologyUniversity of Virginia School of MedicineCharlottesvilleVAUSA
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care MedicineUniversity of Virginia School of MedicineCharlottesvilleVAUSA
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8
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Functional Role of Dietary Intervention to Improve the Outcome of COVID-19: A Hypothesis of Work. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21093104. [PMID: 32354030 PMCID: PMC7247152 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21093104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Revised: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND On the 31 December 2019, the World Health Organization (WHO) was informed of a cluster of cases of pneumonia of unknown origin detected in Wuhan City, Hubei Province, China. The infection spread first in China and then in the rest of the world, and on the 11th of March, the WHO declared that COVID-19 was a pandemic. Taking into consideration the mortality rate of COVID-19, about 5-7%, and the percentage of positive patients admitted to intensive care units being 9-11%, it should be mandatory to consider and take all necessary measures to contain the COVID-19 infection. Moreover, given the recent evidence in different hospitals suggesting IL-6 and TNF-α inhibitor drugs as a possible therapy for COVID-19, we aimed to highlight that a dietary intervention could be useful to prevent the infection and/or to ameliorate the outcomes during therapy. Considering that the COVID-19 infection can generate a mild or highly acute respiratory syndrome with a consequent release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-6 and TNF-α, a dietary regimen modification in order to improve the levels of adiponectin could be very useful both to prevent the infection and to take care of patients, improving their outcomes.
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9
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Rasooli Tehrani A, Gholipour S, Sharifi R, Yadegari S, Abbasi-Kolli M, Masoudian N. Plasma levels of CTRP-3, CTRP-9 and apelin in women with multiple sclerosis. J Neuroimmunol 2019; 333:576968. [PMID: 31129285 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2019.576968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2019] [Revised: 05/12/2019] [Accepted: 05/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recently, adipocytokines have been shown to play a pivotal role in autoimmune and inflammatory-related disease. The purpose of this study was to compare the levels of CTRP3, CTRP9, adiponectin and apelin- in Multiple Sclerosis (MS) patients with healthy subjects and their relationship with clinical parameters and the levels of pro-inflammatory mediators. METHODS Plasma levels of CTRP3, CTRP9, apelin, TNF-α, hs-CRP, and adiponectin were evaluated in 24 healthy women and 26 women with relapsing-remitting MS using immunoassay methods. RESULTS The plasma apelin level of the MS patients was significantly lower than that of healthy controls. The concentration of TNF-α and adiponectin were significantly higher in MS patients compared to the healthy controls. Plasma CTRP3, CTRP9 and hs-CRP levels were not significantly different between the two groups. There was no correlation between these adipokines and inflammatory mediators. A statistically significant negative correlation was observed between plasma concentrations of apelin with expanded disability status scale (EDSS) scores and number of relapse. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that adipokines, particularly apelin and adiponectin, may contribute to the pathogenesis of MS and can be considered as a biomarker or as a therapeutic target for the treatment of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Rasooli Tehrani
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Basic Science, Islamic azad University, Damghan Branch, Damghan, Semnan, Iran
| | - Sakineh Gholipour
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Basic Science, Islamic azad University, Damghan Branch, Damghan, Semnan, Iran
| | - Roya Sharifi
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, School of Allied Medical Sciences, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Samira Yadegari
- Department of Neuro-ophthalmology and Strabismus, Farabi Eye Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Eye Research Center, Farabi Eye Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Abbasi-Kolli
- Student Research Committee, School of Allied Medical Sciences, Iran University of Medical Science, Tehran, Iran; Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Nahid Masoudian
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Basic Science, Islamic azad University, Damghan Branch, Damghan, Semnan, Iran
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10
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Garshick E, Walia P, Goldstein RL, Teylan M, Lazzari AA, Tun CG, Hart JE. Plasma Leptin and Reduced FEV 1 and FVC in Chronic Spinal Cord Injury. PM R 2017; 10:276-285. [PMID: 28827209 DOI: 10.1016/j.pmrj.2017.08.437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2017] [Revised: 07/28/2017] [Accepted: 08/11/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Adipose tissue produces leptin, which is pro-inflammatory, and adiponectin, which has anti-inflammatory properties. Participants with chronic spinal cord injury (SCI) have increased body fat and are at increased risk for respiratory illness. OBJECTIVE To assess the associations between leptin and adiponectin with pulmonary function in a chronic SCI cohort. DESIGN Cross-sectional study. SETTING Veterans Affairs Medical Center. PARTICIPANTS A total of 285 participants (237 men and 48 women) with chronic SCI with mean (standard deviation) injury duration 17.8 (13.2) years from the VA Boston and the community participating in an epidemiologic study assessing factors associated with respiratory health. METHODS Participants (24.6% cervical American Spinal Injury Association Impairment Scale (AIS) level A, B, and C; 33.6% other AIS A, B, and C; 41.8% AIS D) provided a blood sample, completed a respiratory health questionnaire, and underwent spirometry. Linear regression methods were used to assess cross-sectional associations between plasma leptin and adiponectin with spirometric measures of pulmonary function adjusted for age, race, gender, and height. Level and severity of SCI, mobility mode, body mass index, smoking, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, chest injury history, laboratory batch, and other potential confounders were also considered. MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1), forced vital capacity (FVC), and FEV1/FVC. RESULTS There was a statistically significant inverse relationship between plasma leptin assessed in quartiles or as a continuous covariate with FEV1 and FVC. In fully adjusted models, each interquartile range (16,214 pg/mL) increase in leptin was associated with a significant decrease in FEV1 (-93.1 mL; 95% confidence interval = -166.2, -20.0) and decrease in FVC (-130.7 mL; 95% confidence interval = -219.4, -42.0). There were no significant associations between leptin and FEV1/FVC or between plasma adiponectin with FEV1, FVC, or FEV1/FVC. CONCLUSION Plasma leptin in individuals with chronic SCI is inversely associated with FEV1 and FVC, independently of SCI level and severity and other covariates. This finding suggests that plasma leptin may contribute to reduced pulmonary function in chronic SCI. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE II.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Garshick
- Pulmonary, Allergy, Sleep, and Critical Care Medicine Section, Medical Service, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA; Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; VA Boston Healthcare System, West Roxbury Campus, 1400 VFW Parkway, West Roxbury, MA 02132.,Research and Development Service, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA.,Divison of Primary Care and Rheumatology Section, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA.,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA.,Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA
| | - Palak Walia
- Pulmonary, Allergy, Sleep, and Critical Care Medicine Section, Medical Service, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA; Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; VA Boston Healthcare System, West Roxbury Campus, 1400 VFW Parkway, West Roxbury, MA 02132.,Research and Development Service, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA.,Divison of Primary Care and Rheumatology Section, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA.,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA.,Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA
| | - Rebekah L Goldstein
- Pulmonary, Allergy, Sleep, and Critical Care Medicine Section, Medical Service, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA; Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; VA Boston Healthcare System, West Roxbury Campus, 1400 VFW Parkway, West Roxbury, MA 02132.,Research and Development Service, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA.,Divison of Primary Care and Rheumatology Section, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA.,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA.,Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA
| | - Merilee Teylan
- Pulmonary, Allergy, Sleep, and Critical Care Medicine Section, Medical Service, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA; Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; VA Boston Healthcare System, West Roxbury Campus, 1400 VFW Parkway, West Roxbury, MA 02132.,Research and Development Service, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA.,Divison of Primary Care and Rheumatology Section, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA.,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA.,Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA
| | - Antonio A Lazzari
- Pulmonary, Allergy, Sleep, and Critical Care Medicine Section, Medical Service, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA; Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; VA Boston Healthcare System, West Roxbury Campus, 1400 VFW Parkway, West Roxbury, MA 02132.,Research and Development Service, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA.,Divison of Primary Care and Rheumatology Section, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA.,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA.,Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA
| | - Carlos G Tun
- Pulmonary, Allergy, Sleep, and Critical Care Medicine Section, Medical Service, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA; Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; VA Boston Healthcare System, West Roxbury Campus, 1400 VFW Parkway, West Roxbury, MA 02132.,Research and Development Service, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA.,Divison of Primary Care and Rheumatology Section, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA.,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA.,Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA
| | - Jaime E Hart
- Pulmonary, Allergy, Sleep, and Critical Care Medicine Section, Medical Service, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA; Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; VA Boston Healthcare System, West Roxbury Campus, 1400 VFW Parkway, West Roxbury, MA 02132.,Research and Development Service, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA.,Divison of Primary Care and Rheumatology Section, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA.,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA.,Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA
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11
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Karampela I, Kandri E, Antonakos G, Vogiatzakis E, Christodoulatos GS, Nikolaidou A, Dimopoulos G, Armaganidis A, Dalamaga M. Kinetics of circulating fetuin-A may predict mortality independently from adiponectin, high molecular weight adiponectin and prognostic factors in critically ill patients with sepsis: A prospective study. J Crit Care 2017; 41:78-85. [PMID: 28500919 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2017.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2017] [Revised: 04/20/2017] [Accepted: 05/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Fetuin-A and adiponectin, major hepatokine and adipokine respectively, have been implicated in systematic inflammation. Our aim was to jointly investigate whether kinetics of circulating fetuin-A, adiponectin and its isoform HMWA predict 28-day mortality in sepsis. MATERIALS AND METHODS In a prospective study, serum fetuin-A, adiponectin and HMWA were determined in 102 ICU patients fulfilling the diagnostic criteria of SEPSIS-3, at enrollment and one week after, and in 102 healthy controls matched on age and gender. RESULTS Serum fetuin-A was significantly lower in septic patients than controls (p<0.001). Among septic patients, those with septic shock and nonsurvivors presented lower fetuin-A, but higher adiponectin and HMWA compared to patients with sepsis and survivors respectively, both at baseline and day 7 (p<0.001). Fetuin-A exhibited negative correlations with APACHE II, CRP, procalcitonin, adiponectin and IL-6 but a positive one with albumin. Reduced fetuin-A as well as lower serum kinetics of fetuin-A (HR: 0.55, 95% C.I. 0.34-0.91, p=0.02), adiponectin but not HMWA were independently associated with 28-day mortality adjusting for age, gender, BMI, APACHE II, septic shock and laboratory biomarkers. CONCLUSIONS Circulating fetuin-A kinetics may be a prognostic biomarker in septic patients. More research is essential to elucidate fetuin-A's ontological role in sepsis pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Karampela
- Second Department of Critical Care, Attikon General University Hospital, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Haidari, Greece; Department of Biological Chemistry, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Evangelia Kandri
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Georgios Antonakos
- Laboratory of Clinical Biochemistry, Attikon General University Hospital, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Haidari, Greece
| | | | | | - Athina Nikolaidou
- Laboratory of Clinical Biochemistry, Attikon General University Hospital, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Haidari, Greece
| | - George Dimopoulos
- Second Department of Critical Care, Attikon General University Hospital, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Haidari, Greece
| | - Apostolos Armaganidis
- Second Department of Critical Care, Attikon General University Hospital, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Haidari, Greece
| | - Maria Dalamaga
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece; Laboratory of Clinical Biochemistry, Attikon General University Hospital, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Haidari, Greece.
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12
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Zhu L, Xu ZL, Cheng YY. [Research advances in association between pediatric obesity and bronchial asthma]. ZHONGGUO DANG DAI ER KE ZA ZHI = CHINESE JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY PEDIATRICS 2016; 18:671-6. [PMID: 27412555 PMCID: PMC7388998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2016] [Indexed: 03/30/2024]
Abstract
This review article introduces the research advances in the pathophysiological mechanism of obesity in inducing pediatric bronchial asthma, including the role of leptin in obesity and asthma, the association of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 with obesity and asthma, the association of adiponectin and interleukins with obesity and asthma, and the influence of neurotransmitter on asthma. In particular, this article introduces the latest research on the inhibition of allergic asthma through targeting at the nociceptor of dorsal root ganglion and blocking the signaling pathway of the nociceptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lian Zhu
- Department of Pediatrics, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, China.
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13
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Zhu L, Xu ZL, Cheng YY. [Research advances in association between pediatric obesity and bronchial asthma]. ZHONGGUO DANG DAI ER KE ZA ZHI = CHINESE JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY PEDIATRICS 2016; 18:671-676. [PMID: 27412555 PMCID: PMC7388998 DOI: 10.7499/j.issn.1008-8830.2016.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
This review article introduces the research advances in the pathophysiological mechanism of obesity in inducing pediatric bronchial asthma, including the role of leptin in obesity and asthma, the association of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 with obesity and asthma, the association of adiponectin and interleukins with obesity and asthma, and the influence of neurotransmitter on asthma. In particular, this article introduces the latest research on the inhibition of allergic asthma through targeting at the nociceptor of dorsal root ganglion and blocking the signaling pathway of the nociceptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lian Zhu
- Department of Pediatrics, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, China.
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Chen HM, Yang CM, Chang JF, Wu CS, Sia KC, Lin WN. AdipoR-increased intracellular ROS promotes cPLA2 and COX-2 expressions via activation of PKC and p300 in adiponectin-stimulated human alveolar type II cells. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2016; 311:L255-69. [PMID: 27288489 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00218.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2015] [Accepted: 03/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Adiponectin, an adipokine, accumulated in lung system via T-cadherin after allergens/ozone challenge. However, the roles of adiponectin on lung pathologies were controversial. Here we reported that adiponectin stimulated expression of inflammatory proteins, cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in human alveolar type II A549 cells. AdipoR1/2 involved in adiponectin-activated NADPH oxidase and mitochondria, which further promoted intracellular ROS accumulation. Protein kinase C (PKC) may involve an adiponectin-activated NADPH oxidase. Similarly, p300 phosphorylation and histone H4 acetylation occurred in adiponectin-challenged A549 cells. Moreover, adiponectin-upregulated cPLA2 and COX-2 expression was significantly abrogated by ROS scavenger (N-acetylcysteine) or the inhibitors of NADPH oxidase (apocynin), mitochondrial complex I (rotenone), PKC (Ro31-8220, Gö-6976, and rottlerin), and p300 (garcinol). Briefly, we reported that adiponectin stimulated cPLA2 and COX-2 expression via AdipoR1/2-dependent activation of PKC/NADPH oxidase/mitochondria resulting in ROS accumulation, p300 phosphorylation, and histone H4 acetylation. These results suggested that adiponectin promoted lung inflammation, resulting in exacerbation of pulmonary diseases via upregulating cPLA2 and COX-2 expression together with intracellular ROS production. Understanding the adiponectin signaling pathways on regulating cPLA2 and COX-2 may help develop therapeutic strategies on pulmonary diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsiao-Mei Chen
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Science, Fu Jen Catholic University, Xinzhuang, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Chuen-Mao Yang
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology and Health Aging Research Center, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kwei-San, Tao-Yuan, Taiwan; Department of Anesthetics, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkuo, Kwei-San, Tao-Yuan, Taiwan; Research Center for Industry of Human Ecology and Graduate Institute of Health Industry Technology, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Tao-Yuan, Taiwan
| | - Jia-Feng Chang
- PhD Program in Nutrition and Food Science, Fu Jen Catholic University, Xinzhuang, New Taipei City, Taiwan; Department of Internal Medicine, En-Chu-Kong Hospital, Sanxia, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Chi-Sheng Wu
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Science, Fu Jen Catholic University, Xinzhuang, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Kee-Chin Sia
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Science, Fu Jen Catholic University, Xinzhuang, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Ning Lin
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Science, Fu Jen Catholic University, Xinzhuang, New Taipei City, Taiwan
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15
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16
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The prevention and treatment of hypoadiponectinemia-associated human diseases by up-regulation of plasma adiponectin. Life Sci 2015; 135:55-67. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2015.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2014] [Revised: 03/13/2015] [Accepted: 03/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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17
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Zana-Taieb E, Pham H, Franco-Montoya ML, Jacques S, Letourneur F, Baud O, Jarreau PH, Vaiman D. Impaired alveolarization and intra-uterine growth restriction in rats: a postnatal genome-wide analysis. J Pathol 2015; 235:420-30. [DOI: 10.1002/path.4470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2014] [Revised: 09/17/2014] [Accepted: 10/13/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- E Zana-Taieb
- Université Paris Descartes; Paris France
- Fondation PremUp, 53 avenue de l'Observatoire, 75014 Paris; France
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1141; Paris France
- Assistance Publique - Hôpitaux de Paris, Service de Médecine et Réanimation Néonatales de Port-Royal, Groupe Hospitalier Cochin, Broca, Hôtel-Dieu, 53 Avenue de l'Observatoire, 75014 Paris; France
| | - H Pham
- Fondation PremUp, 53 avenue de l'Observatoire, 75014 Paris; France
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1141; Paris France
| | - ML Franco-Montoya
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U955 IMRB Equipe 04, Faculté de Médecine de Créteil, 94010 Créteil; France
| | - S Jacques
- Genom'ic, INSERM U1016, CNRS UMR8104, Paris; France
| | - F Letourneur
- Genom'ic, INSERM U1016, CNRS UMR8104, Paris; France
| | - O Baud
- Fondation PremUp, 53 avenue de l'Observatoire, 75014 Paris; France
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1141; Paris France
- Assistance Publique - Hôpitaux de Paris, Service de Réanimation et Pédiatrie Néonatales, Hôpital Robert Debré, Paris; France
- Université Paris Diderot; Paris France
| | - PH Jarreau
- Université Paris Descartes; Paris France
- Fondation PremUp, 53 avenue de l'Observatoire, 75014 Paris; France
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1141; Paris France
- Assistance Publique - Hôpitaux de Paris, Service de Médecine et Réanimation Néonatales de Port-Royal, Groupe Hospitalier Cochin, Broca, Hôtel-Dieu, 53 Avenue de l'Observatoire, 75014 Paris; France
| | - D Vaiman
- Institut Cochin, INSERM U1016-CNRS, UMRS 104; Paris France
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Obesity, inflammation, and lung injury (OILI): the good. Mediators Inflamm 2014; 2014:978463. [PMID: 24899788 PMCID: PMC4037577 DOI: 10.1155/2014/978463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2014] [Accepted: 03/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Obesity becomes pandemic, predisposing these individuals to great risk for lung injury. In this review, we focused on the anti-inflammatories and addressed the following aspects: adipocytokines and obesity, inflammation and other mechanisms, adipocytokines and lung injury in obesity bridged by inflammation, and potential therapeutic targets. To sum up, the majority of evidence supported that adiponectin, omentin, and secreted frizzled-related protein 5 (SFRP5) were reduced significantly in obesity, which is associated with increased inflammation, indicated by increase of TNFα and IL-6, through activation of toll-like receptor (TLR4) and nuclear factor light chain κB (NF-κB) signaling pathways. Administration of these adipocytokines promotes weight loss and reduces inflammation. Zinc-α2-glycoprotein (ZAG), vaspin, IL-10, interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA), transforming growth factor β (TGF-β1), and growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) are also regarded as anti-inflammatories. There were controversial reports. Furthermore, there is a huge lack of studies for obesity related lung injury. The effects of adiponectin on lung transplantation, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD), and pneumonia were anti-inflammatory and protective in lung injury. Administration of IL-10 agonist reduces mortality of acute lung injury in rabbits with acute necrotizing pancreatitis, possibly through inhibiting proinflammation and strengthening host immunity. Very limited information is available for other adipocytokines.
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Wouters EFM. Adiponectin: a novel link between adipose tissue and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2013; 188:522-3. [PMID: 23992584 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.201307-1243ed] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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Adiponectin, Leptin, and Resistin in Asthma: Basic Mechanisms through Population Studies. J Allergy (Cairo) 2013; 2013:785835. [PMID: 24288549 PMCID: PMC3832971 DOI: 10.1155/2013/785835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2013] [Revised: 09/03/2013] [Accepted: 09/05/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Adipokines, factors produced by adipose tissue, may be proinflammatory (such as leptin and resistin) or anti-inflammatory (such as adiponectin). Effects of these adipokines on the lungs have the potential to evoke or exacerbate asthma. This review summarizes basic mechanistic data through population-based and clinical studies addressing the potential role of adipokines in asthma. Augmenting circulating concentrations of adiponectin attenuates allergic airway inflammation and airway hyperresponsiveness in mice. Murine data is supported by human data that suggest that low serum adiponectin is associated with greater risk for asthma among women and peripubertal girls. Further, higher serum total adiponectin may be associated with lower clinical asthma severity among children and women with asthma. In contrast, exogenous administration of leptin results in augmented allergic airway hyperresponsiveness in mice. Alveolar macrophages obtained from obese asthmatics are uniquely sensitive to leptin in terms of their potential to augment inflammation. Consistent with this basic mechanistic data, epidemiologic studies demonstrate that higher serum leptin is associated with greater asthma prevalence and/or severity and that these associations may be stronger among women, postpubertal girls, and prepubertal boys. The role of adipokines in asthma is still evolving, and it is not currently known whether modulation of adipokines may be helpful in asthma prevention or treatment.
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Adiponectin in inflammatory and immune-mediated diseases. Cytokine 2013; 64:1-10. [PMID: 23850004 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2013.06.317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2013] [Revised: 05/31/2013] [Accepted: 06/16/2013] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Circulating levels of adiponectin (APN) are reduced in obesity and associated comorbidities, with inflammation playing an important role in downregulating APN production. In contrast to obesity and metabolic disease, elevated systemic and local levels of APN are present in patients with inflammatory and immune-mediated diseases, including autoimmune and pulmonary conditions, heart and kidney failure, viral hepatitis, organ transplantation and perhaps critical illness. A positive association between inflammation and APN is usually reported in inflammatory/immune pathologies, in contrast with the negative correlation typical of metabolic disease. This review discusses the role of APN in modulation of inflammation and immunity and the potential mechanisms leading to increased levels of APN in inflammatory/immune diseases, including modification of adipose tissue physiology; relative contribution of different tissues and adipose depots; hormonal, pharmacological, nutritional and life style factors; the potential contribution of the microbiota as well as the role of altered APN clearance and release from T-cadherin-associated tissue reservoirs. Potential reasons for some of the apparently contradictory findings on the role of APN as a modulator of immunity and inflammation are also discussed, including a comparison of types of recombinant APN used for in vitro studies and strain-dependent differences in the phenotype of APN KO mice.
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