FoxO Transcription Factors and Regenerative Pathways in Diabetes Mellitus

16S rRNA and transcriptome analysis of the FOS-mediated alleviation of Aeromonas hydrophila-induced intestinal damage in Megalobrama amblycephala

This study was conducted to elucidate the effects of FOS that alleviate Aeromonas hydrophila-induced intestinal damage. The results showed that A. hydrophila disrupted the intestinal structure and increased intestinal permeability, causing abnormalities in mucosal pathology. Additionally, A. hydrophila induced an imbalance in the intestinal flora and disturbed its stability. Dietary FOS ameliorated the injury to the intestinal structure of fish, but also in part improved the condition of the intestinal tight junction complex. Transcriptomic analysis showed that 120 genes were up-regulated and 320 genes were down-regulated. The intestinal immune network for the IgA production signalling pathway was enriched following A. hydrophila infection, and the change in the FOS group was mainly in the Tight junction signalling pathway. Similarly, dietary FOS reduced the disruption of the intestinal microbiota induced by A. hydrophila and improved the intestinal microbiota's stability; FOS was also partially implicated in the upregulation of Tight junction and Adhesion junction pathways by transcriptomic analysis. After further analysis, it was found that fish fed FOS had upregulated expression of genes related to apoptosis, antigen presentation, and the T-cell-mediated immune response in the intestine compared with those in the A. hydrophila group, which may be related to changes in the intestinal microbiome.

MicroRNA-183 cluster: a promising biomarker and therapeutic target in gastrointestinal malignancies

Small non-coding RNAs (microRNA, miR), powerful epigenetic regulators, were found involved in the regulation of most biological functions via post-translational inhibition of protein expression. Increased expression of pro-oncogenic miRs (known as miR cancer biomarkers) and inhibition of pro-apoptotic miR expression have been demonstrated in different tumors. The recently identified miR-183 was found implicated in gastrointestinal tumor metabolism regulation. Elevated miR-183 expression and cancer-promoting effects were reported in esophageal and colorectal cancers, which was partially contradicted by controversial data observed in gastric cancers. Anti-cancer effect of miR-183 in gastric cancer cells was associated with the Bim-1 and Ezrin genes regulation. Many studies indicated that miR-183 can inhibit tumor suppressor genes in most cell lines, promoting tumor cell proliferation and migration. Increased miR-183 level results in the downregulation of FOXO1, PDCD4, and other tumor suppressor genes in gastrointestinal tumor cells. MiR-183 also influences the signaling of PI3K/AKT/mTOR, Wnt/β-catenin, and Bcl-2/p53 signaling pathways. Mir-183 inhibits apoptosis and autophagy, and promotes epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, cancer cell proliferation, and migration. Accordingly, gastrointestinal cancer occurrence, development of chemoradiotherapy resistance, recurrence/metastasis, and prognosis were associated with miR-183 expression. The current study assessed reported miR-183 functions and signaling, providing new insights for the diagnosis and treatment of gastrointestinal malignancies.

The impact of aging and oxidative stress in metabolic and nervous system disorders: programmed cell death and molecular signal transduction crosstalk

Life expectancy is increasing throughout the world and coincides with a rise in non-communicable diseases (NCDs), especially for metabolic disease that includes diabetes mellitus (DM) and neurodegenerative disorders. The debilitating effects of metabolic disorders influence the entire body and significantly affect the nervous system impacting greater than one billion people with disability in the peripheral nervous system as well as with cognitive loss, now the seventh leading cause of death worldwide. Metabolic disorders, such as DM, and neurologic disease remain a significant challenge for the treatment and care of individuals since present therapies may limit symptoms but do not halt overall disease progression. These clinical challenges to address the interplay between metabolic and neurodegenerative disorders warrant innovative strategies that can focus upon the underlying mechanisms of aging-related disorders, oxidative stress, cell senescence, and cell death. Programmed cell death pathways that involve autophagy, apoptosis, ferroptosis, and pyroptosis can play a critical role in metabolic and neurodegenerative disorders and oversee processes that include insulin resistance, β-cell function, mitochondrial integrity, reactive oxygen species release, and inflammatory cell activation. The silent mating type information regulation 2 homolog 1 (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) (SIRT1), AMP activated protein kinase (AMPK), and Wnt1 inducible signaling pathway protein 1 (WISP1) are novel targets that can oversee programmed cell death pathways tied to β-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), nicotinamide, apolipoprotein E (APOE), severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV-2) exposure with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), and trophic factors, such as erythropoietin (EPO). The pathways of programmed cell death, SIRT1, AMPK, and WISP1 offer exciting prospects for maintaining metabolic homeostasis and nervous system function that can be compromised during aging-related disorders and lead to cognitive impairment, but these pathways have dual roles in determining the ultimate fate of cells and organ systems that warrant thoughtful insight into complex autofeedback mechanisms.

Innovative therapeutic strategies for cardiovascular disease

As a significant non-communicable disease, cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death for both men and women, comprises almost twenty percent of deaths in most racial and ethnic groups, can affect greater than twenty-five million individuals worldwide over the age of twenty, and impacts global economies with far-reaching financial challenges. Multiple factors can affect the onset of cardiovascular disease that include high serum cholesterol levels, elevated blood pressure, tobacco consumption and secondhand smoke exposure, poor nutrition, physical inactivity, obesity, and concurrent diabetes mellitus. Yet, addressing any of these factors cannot completely eliminate the onset or progression of cardiovascular disorders. Novel strategies are necessary to target underlying cardiovascular disease mechanisms. The silent mating type information regulation 2 homolog 1 (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) (SIRT1), a histone deacetylase, can limit cardiovascular injury, assist with stem cell development, oversee metabolic homeostasis through nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) pathways, foster trophic factor protection, and control cell senescence through the modulation of telomere function. Intimately tied to SIRT1 pathways are mammalian forkhead transcription factors (FoxOs) which can modulate cardiac disease to reduce oxidative stress, repair microcirculation disturbances, and reduce atherogenesis through pathways of autophagy, apoptosis, and ferroptosis. AMP activated protein kinase (AMPK) also is critical among these pathways for the oversight of cardiac cellular metabolism, insulin sensitivity, mitochondrial function, inflammation, and the susceptibility to viral infections such as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus that can impact cardiovascular disease. Yet, the relationship among these pathways is both intricate and complex and requires detailed insight to successfully translate these pathways into clinical care for cardiovascular disorders.

Cognitive Impairment in Multiple Sclerosis

Almost three million individuals suffer from multiple sclerosis (MS) throughout the world, a demyelinating disease in the nervous system with increased prevalence over the last five decades, and is now being recognized as one significant etiology of cognitive loss and dementia. Presently, disease modifying therapies can limit the rate of relapse and potentially reduce brain volume loss in patients with MS, but unfortunately cannot prevent disease progression or the onset of cognitive disability. Innovative strategies are therefore required to address areas of inflammation, immune cell activation, and cell survival that involve novel pathways of programmed cell death, mammalian forkhead transcription factors (FoxOs), the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), AMP activated protein kinase (AMPK), the silent mating type information regulation 2 homolog 1 (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) (SIRT1), and associated pathways with the apolipoprotein E (APOE-ε4) gene and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2). These pathways are intertwined at multiple levels and can involve metabolic oversight with cellular metabolism dependent upon nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+). Insight into the mechanisms of these pathways can provide new avenues of discovery for the therapeutic treatment of dementia and loss in cognition that occurs during MS.

Cellular Metabolism: A Fundamental Component of Degeneration in the Nervous System

It is estimated that, at minimum, 500 million individuals suffer from cellular metabolic dysfunction, such as diabetes mellitus (DM), throughout the world. Even more concerning is the knowledge that metabolic disease is intimately tied to neurodegenerative disorders, affecting both the central and peripheral nervous systems as well as leading to dementia, the seventh leading cause of death. New and innovative therapeutic strategies that address cellular metabolism, apoptosis, autophagy, and pyroptosis, the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), AMP activated protein kinase (AMPK), growth factor signaling with erythropoietin (EPO), and risk factors such as the apolipoprotein E (APOE-ε4) gene and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) can offer valuable insights for the clinical care and treatment of neurodegenerative disorders impacted by cellular metabolic disease. Critical insight into and modulation of these complex pathways are required since mTOR signaling pathways, such as AMPK activation, can improve memory retention in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and DM, promote healthy aging, facilitate clearance of β-amyloid (Aß) and tau in the brain, and control inflammation, but also may lead to cognitive loss and long-COVID syndrome through mechanisms that can include oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, cytokine release, and APOE-ε4 if pathways such as autophagy and other mechanisms of programmed cell death are left unchecked.

The Metabolic Basis for Nervous System Dysfunction in Alzheimer's Disease, Parkinson's Disease, and Huntington's Disease

Disorders of metabolism affect multiple systems throughout the body but may have the greatest impact on both central and peripheral nervous systems. Currently available treatments and behavior changes for disorders that include diabetes mellitus (DM) and nervous system diseases are limited and cannot reverse the disease burden. Greater access to healthcare and a longer lifespan have led to an increased prevalence of metabolic and neurodegenerative disorders. In light of these challenges, innovative studies into the underlying disease pathways offer new treatment perspectives for Alzheimer's Disease, Parkinson's Disease, and Huntington's Disease. Metabolic disorders are intimately tied to neurodegenerative diseases and can lead to debilitating outcomes, such as multi-nervous system disease, susceptibility to viral pathogens, and long-term cognitive disability. Novel strategies that can robustly address metabolic disease and neurodegenerative disorders involve a careful consideration of cellular metabolism, programmed cell death pathways, the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) and its associated pathways of mTOR Complex 1 (mTORC1), mTOR Complex 2 (mTORC2), AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), growth factor signaling, and underlying risk factors such as the apolipoprotein E (APOE-ε4) gene. Yet, these complex pathways necessitate comprehensive understanding to achieve clinical outcomes that target disease susceptibility, onset, and progression.

The Molecular Mechanisms of Panax ginseng in Treating Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Network Pharmacology Analysis and Molecular Docking Validation

Background

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder with a high global incidence. Panax ginseng has been used to treat T2DM in traditional medicine, with previous in vitro, in vivo, and clinical trial studies demonstrating its efficacy. This study aimed to determine the mechanism of P. ginseng in treating T2DM by network pharmacology.

Methods

The bioactive compounds of P. ginseng and corresponding targets of P. ginseng-T2DM were retrieved across multiple databases. The protein-protein interaction network was established using the STRING database and topological analysis helped identify the core target. Using the DAVID tool, we performed Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis. Finally, we checked the binding of core targets and bioactive compounds using molecular docking.

Results

The P. ginseng-T2DM networks mainly contained 22 bioactive compounds and 314 overlapping targets. The five most significant core targets were SRC, STAT3, MAPK1, AKT1, and PIK3R1. There were 244 GO terms and 95 KEGG pathways (adjusted p < 0.01) that were strongly correlated with diabetes-related signaling pathways, such as insulin resistance, the HIF-1 signaling pathway, the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway, the prolactin signaling pathway, the Rap1 signaling pathway, the Ras signaling pathway, the calcium signaling pathway, and the FoxO signaling pathway. Molecular docking results revealed that the top five core targets had a high binding affinity with the bioactive compounds of P. ginseng.

Conclusion

The bioactive compounds and targets in P. ginseng ameliorate T2DM by regulating insulin resistance and multiple signaling pathways.

Aberrant Expression of COX-2 and FOXG1 in Infrapatellar Fat Pad-Derived ASCs from Pre-Diabetic Donors

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a degenerative joint disease resulting in limited mobility and severe disability. Type II diabetes mellitus (T2D) is a weight-independent risk factor for OA, but a link between the two diseases has not been elucidated. Adipose stem cells (ASCs) isolated from the infrapatellar fat pad (IPFP) may be a viable regenerative cell for OA treatment. This study analyzed the expression profiles of inflammatory and adipokine-related genes in IPFP-ASCs of non-diabetic (Non-T2D), pre-diabetic (Pre-T2D), and T2D donors. Pre-T2D ASCs exhibited a substantial decrease in levels of mesenchymal markers CD90 and CD105 with no change in adipogenic differentiation compared to Non-T2D and T2D IPFP-ASCs. In addition, Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), Forkhead box G1 (FOXG1) expression and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) secretion were significantly increased in Pre-T2D IPFP-ASCs upon stimulation by interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β). Interestingly, M1 macrophages exhibited a significant reduction in expression of pro-inflammatory markers TNFα and IL-6 when co-cultured with Pre-T2D IPFP-ASCs. These data suggest that the heightened systemic inflammation associated with untreated T2D may prime the IPFP-ASCs to exhibit enhanced anti-inflammatory characteristics via suppressing the IL-6/COX-2 signaling pathway. In addition, the elevated production of PGE2 by the Pre-T2D IPFP-ASCs may also suggest the contribution of pre-diabetic conditions to the onset and progression of OA.

The Therapeutic Effects of Magnesium in Insulin Secretion and Insulin Resistance

Insulin resistance (IR) is a chronic pathological condition that is related to reduce the rates of glucose uptake, especially in the liver, muscle, and adipose tissue as target tissues. Metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes mellitus can occur following progression of the disease. The majority of prior research has applied that some cations such as magnesium (Mg²⁺) have important physiological role in insulin metabolism. Mg²⁺ is the fourth most abundant mineral in the human body that gets involved as a cofactor of various enzymes in several metabolic events, such as carbohydrate oxidation, and it has a fundamental role in glucose transporting mechanism of the cell membrane. This cation has numerous duties in the human body such as regulation of insulin secretion in pancreatic beta-cells and phosphorylation of the insulin receptors in target cells and also gets involved in other downstream signal kinases as intracellular cation. On this basis, intracellular Mg²⁺ balancing is vital for adequate carbohydrate metabolism. This paper summarizes the present knowledge about the therapeutic effects of Mg²⁺ in reducing IR in liver, muscle, and pancreases with different mechanisms. For this, the search was performed in Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science by insulin resistance, skeletal muscle, liver, pancreases, magnesium, Mg²⁺, and inflammation keywords.

Regulatory mechanism of cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases in post-mitotic neuronal cell division

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) are the most common life-threatening disease of the central nervous system and it cause the progressive loss of neuronal cells. The exact mechanism of the disease's progression is not clear and thus line of treatment for NDDs is a baffling issue. During the progression of NDDs, oxidative stress and DNA damage play an important regulatory function, and ultimately induces neurodegeneration. Recently, aberrant cell cycle events have been demonstrated in the progression of different NDDs. However, the pertinent role of signaling mechanism, for instance, post-translational modifications, oxidative stress, DNA damage response pathway, JNK/p38 MAPK, MEK/ERK cascade, actively participated in the aberrant cell cycle reentry induced neuronal cell death. Mounting evidence has demonstrated that aberrant cell cycle re-entry is a major contributing factor in the pathogenesis of NDDs rather than a secondary phenomenon. In the brain of AD patients with mild cognitive impairment, post miotic cell division can be seen in the early stage of the disease. However, in the brain of PD patients, response to various neurotoxic signals, the cell cycle re-entry has been observed that causes neuronal apoptosis. On contrary, the contributing factors that leads to the induction of cell cycle events in mature neurons in HD and ALS brain pathology is remain unclear. Various pharmacological drugs have been developed to reduce the pathogenesis of NDDs, but they are still not helpful in eliminating the cause of these NDDs.

Systematic Elucidation of the Mechanism of Sappan Lignum in the Treatment of Diabetic Peripheral Neuropathy Based on Network Pharmacology

Background

Diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) is one of the most common chronic complications of diabetes, which seriously affects the physical and mental health of patients. Sappan Lignum (SL) is effective in treating DPN. Previous reports have shown that SL has a clear hypoglycemic and anti-inflammatory effect. However, the study of SL in the treatment of DPN is still limited and rare.

Objective

To investigate the mechanism of SL in the treatment of DPN based on network pharmacology.

Methods

The active ingredients of SL were screened by related databases. The compound targets were collected by the target prediction platforms. The DPN-related targets were gathered through disease databases. The intersection targets were obtained by uploading the compound targets and disease targets to Venny 2.1.0, and a compound-target network was constructed by Cytoscape3.7.2. The protein-protein interaction (PPI) relationships were obtained by the STRING11.0 database. Genome Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses were performed using the DAVID6.8 database. Molecular docking of key compounds and core targets was performed by DockThor.

Results

A total of 29 compounds and 51 intersection targets with potential therapeutic effects on DPN were obtained. The compound-target network construction resulted in four key compounds: protostemonine, 3-deoxysappanchalcone, 7,3′,4′-trihydroxy-3-benzyl-2H-chromene, and o-12′-methylergocornine. PPI network analysis yielded 10 core targets: AKT1, MAPK3, CXCL8, TNF, OPRM1, MTOR, STAT3, MAPK8, SIRT1, and HSP90AA1. KEGG analysis resulted in 82 signaling pathways (P < 0.05), including insulin resistance, HIF-1 signaling pathway, and type II diabetes. The docking results indicated that the main active compounds could stably bind to core targets.

Conclusion

SL had the mechanism of multiple ingredients, multiple targets, and multiple pathways in the treatment of DPN. This study provided a scientific basis for further research on the treatment of DPN with SL and its extracts.

PHLPP1/Nrf2-Mdm2 axis induces renal apoptosis via influencing nucleo-cytoplasmic shuttling of FoxO1 during diabetic nephropathy

Impaired PI3K/Akt signaling (insulin resistance) and poor glycemic control (hyperglycemia) are the major risk factors involved in the progression of diabetic nephropathy (DN). This study was designed to identify factors influencing cell survival during DN. We found that high glucose exposure in renal proximal tubular cells (NRK52E) upregulated PHLPP1, an Akt phosphatase (Ser473), causing suppression in Akt and IGF1β phosphorylation leading to inhibition in insulin signaling pathway. Results demonstrate that sustained activation of PHLPP1 promoted nuclear retention of FoxO1 by preventing its ubiquitination via Mdm2, an Akt/ Nrf2-dependent E3 ligase. Thus, enhanced FoxO1 nuclear stability caused aberration in renal gluconeogenesis and activated apoptotic cascade. Conversely, gene silencing of PHLPP1-enhanced Nrf2 expression and attenuated FoxO1 regulated apoptosis compared to hyperglycemic cells. Mechanistic aspects of PHLPP1-Nrf2/FoxO1 signaling were further validated in STZ-nicotinamide-induced type 2 diabetic Wistar rats. Importantly, we observed via immunoblotting and dual immunocytochemical studies that treatment of Morin (2',3,4',5,7-Pentahydroxyflavone) during diabetes significantly augmented FoxO1 nuclear exclusion, resulting in its ubiquitination via Akt-Nrf2/Mdm2 pathway. Furthermore, lowering of PHLPP1 expression by Morin also prevented FoxO1/Mst1-mediated apoptotic signaling in vitro and in vivo. Morin treatment under the experimental conditions, effectively decreased blood glucose levels, ameliorated insulin resistance, alleviated oxidative stress and attenuated renal apoptosis in diabetic rats comparable to metformin thereby exhibiting tremendous potential against renal complications of diabetes. These novel results further acclaim that inhibition of PHLPP1/FoxO1-Mdm2 axis is critical in the pathogenesis of diabetic nephropathy.

Role of Forkhead Box O Proteins in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Biology and Progression (Review)

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), the most common type of malignant tumor of the digestive system, is associated with high morbidity and mortality. The main treatment for HCC is surgical resection. Advanced disease, recurrence, and metastasis are the main factors affecting prognosis. Chemotherapy and radiotherapy are not sufficiently efficacious for the treatment of primary and metastatic HCC; therefore, optimizing targeted therapy is essential for improving outcomes. Forkhead box O (FOXO) proteins are widely expressed in cells and function to integrate a variety of growth factors, oxidative stress signals, and other stimulatory signals, thereby inducing the specific expression of downstream signal factors and regulation of the cell cycle, senescence, apoptosis, oxidative stress, HCC development, and chemotherapy sensitivity. Accordingly, FOXO proteins are considered multifunctional targets of cancer treatment. The current review discusses the roles of FOXO proteins, particularly FOXO1, FOXO3, FOXO4, and FOXO6, in HCC and establishes a theoretical basis for the potential targeted therapy of HCC.

Identification of PTP1B regulators from Cymbopogon citratus and its enrichment analysis for diabetes mellitus

PTP1B is identified as the insulin signaling pathway downregulator; involved in pancreatic β-cell apoptosis. Further, it associates in regulating multiple pathways in diabetes mellitus; kindled us to identify the binding affinity of bioactives from Cymbopogon citratus by targeting PTP1B and identify the probably associated with it; further identifying the probable pathways involved in diabetes mellitus. In this regard, ChEBI database was used to retrieve bio-actives from C. citrates and 3D structures for the same were obtained from the PubChem database. The energy of bioactives was minimized and converted into ligand and the docking was carried using autodock 4.0 against PTP1B. Further, multiple characters of bio-actives like drug-likeness score, ADMET profile, probable adverse effects, and boiled egg model for bioavailability were also studied. Swertiajaponin was predicted for the highest drug-likeness score i.e. 0.26. However, swertiajaponin was predicted with the highest probable side effect of nephrotoxicity with pharmacological activity of 0.478. Similarly, swertiajaponin was predicted for the highest binding affinity with PTP1B with the binding energy of - 8.3 kcal/mol. Likewise, KEGG identified 80 pathways associated with PTP1B modulation in which 7 pathways were involved in diabetes mellitus in which FoxO signaling pathway was predicted to have the least false discovery rate by modulating 7 genes. Swertiajaponin could act as the potent inhibitor of PTP1B; scored highest druglikeness score but possessed minimum GIT absorptivity; further, PTP1B was identified to be linked with multiple pathways that are concerned with diabetes mellitus.

Transgenerational supplementation with eicosapentaenoic acid reduced the metabolic consequences on the whole body and skeletal muscle in mice receiving an obesogenic diet

PURPOSE

The effect of manipulating the fatty acid profile of the diet over generations could affect the susceptibility to develop obesity and metabolic disorders. Although some acute effects were described, the impact of transgenerational continuous supplementation with omega 3 fatty acids on metabolic homeostasis and skeletal muscle metabolic flexibility during a nutritional stress is unknown.

METHODS

We analyzed the effect of an obesogenic diet in mice after transgenerational supplementation with an omega-3 rich oil (mainly EPA) or a control oil. Young F3 animals received a high fat and high sucrose diet for 4 months. Whole-body biometric data were recorded and lipidomic/transcriptomic adaptations were explored in the skeletal muscle.

RESULTS

F3 mice from the lineage supplemented with EPA gained less weight, fat mass, and exhibited better metabolic parameters after the obesogenic diet compared to mice from the control lineage. Transcriptomic exploration of skeletal muscle showed differential regulation of biological processes such as fibrosis, fatty acid catabolism, and inflammation between lineages. These adaptations were associated to subtle lipid remodeling of cellular membranes with an enrichment in phospholipids with omega 3 fatty acid in mice from the EPA lineage.

CONCLUSION

Transgenerational and continuous intake of EPA could help to reduce cardiovascular and metabolic risks related to an unbalanced diet by the modulation of insulin sensitivity, fatty acid metabolism, and fibrosis in skeletal muscle.

Nicotinamide as a Foundation for Treating Neurodegenerative Disease and Metabolic Disorders

Neurodegenerative disorders impact more than one billion individuals worldwide and are intimately tied to metabolic disease that can affect another nine hundred individuals throughout the globe. Nicotinamide is a critical agent that may offer fruitful prospects for neurodegenerative diseases and metabolic disorders, such as diabetes mellitus. Nicotinamide protects against multiple toxic environments that include reactive oxygen species exposure, anoxia, excitotoxicity, ethanolinduced neuronal injury, amyloid (Aß) toxicity, age-related vascular disease, mitochondrial dysfunction, insulin resistance, excess lactate production, and loss of glucose homeostasis with pancreatic β-cell dysfunction. However, nicotinamide offers cellular protection in a specific concentration range, with dosing outside of this range leading to detrimental effects. The underlying biological pathways of nicotinamide that involve the silent mating type information regulation 2 homolog 1 (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) (SIRT1), the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), AMP activated protein kinase (AMPK), and mammalian forkhead transcription factors (FoxOs) may offer insight for the clinical translation of nicotinamide into a safe and efficacious therapy through the modulation of oxidative stress, apoptosis, and autophagy. Nicotinamide is a highly promising target for the development of innovative strategies for neurodegenerative disorders and metabolic disease, but the benefits of this foundation depend greatly on gaining a further understanding of nicotinamide's complex biology.

Systemic elucidation on the potential bioactive compounds and hypoglycemic mechanism of Polygonum multiflorum based on network pharmacology

BACKGROUND

Diabetes is a complex metabolic disease characterized by hyperglycemia, plaguing the whole world. However, the action mode of multi-component and multi-target for traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) could be a promising treatment of diabetes mellitus. According to the previous research, the TCM of Polygonum multiflorum (PM) showed noteworthy hypoglycemic effect. Up to now, its hypoglycemic active ingredients and mechanism of action are not yet clear. In this study, network pharmacology was employed to elucidate the potential bioactive compounds and hypoglycemic mechanism of PM.

METHODS

First, the compounds with good pharmacokinetic properties were screened from the self-established library of PM, and the targets of these compounds were predicted and collected through database. Relevant targets of diabetes were summarized by searching database. The intersection targets of compound-targets and disease-targets were obtained soon. Secondly, the interaction net between the compounds and the filtered targets was established. These key targets were enriched and analyzed by protein-protein interactions (PPI) analysis, molecular docking verification. Thirdly, the key genes were used to find the biologic pathway and explain the therapeutic mechanism by genome ontology (GO) and kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) analysis. Lastly, the part of potential bioactive compounds were under enzyme activity inhibition tests.

RESULTS

In this study, 29 hypoglycemic components and 63 hypoglycemic targets of PM were filtrated based on online network database. Then the component-target interaction network was constructed and five key components resveratrol, apigenin, kaempferol, quercetin and luteolin were further obtained. Sequential studies turned out, AKT1, EGFR, ESR1, PTGS2, MMP9, MAPK14, and KDR were the common key targets. Docking studies indicated that the bioactive compounds could stably bind the pockets of target proteins. There were 38 metabolic pathways, including regulation of lipolysis in adipocytes, prolactin signaling pathway, TNF signaling pathway, VEGF signaling pathway, FoxO signaling pathway, estrogen signaling pathway, linoleic acid metabolism, Rap1 signaling pathway, arachidonic acid metabolism, and osteoclast differentiation closely connected with the hypoglycemic mechanism of PM. And the enzyme activity inhibition tests showed the bioactive ingredients have great hypoglycemic activity.

CONCLUSION

In summary, the study used systems pharmacology to elucidate the main hypoglycemic components and mechanism of PM. The work provided a scientific basis for the further hypoglycemic effect research of PM and its monomer components, but also provided a reference for the secondary development of PM.

Comparative Transcriptome Analysis of the Regenerating Zebrafish Telencephalon Unravels a Resource With Key Pathways During Two Early Stages and Activation of Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling at the Early Wound Healing Stage

Owing to its pronounced regenerative capacity in many tissues and organs, the zebrafish brain represents an ideal platform to understand the endogenous regeneration mechanisms that restore tissue integrity and function upon injury or disease. Although radial glial and neuronal cell populations have been characterized with respect to specific marker genes, comprehensive transcriptomic profiling of the regenerating telencephalon has not been conducted so far. Here, by processing the lesioned and unlesioned hemispheres of the telencephalon separately, we reveal the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) at the early wound healing and early proliferative stages of regeneration, i.e., 20 h post-lesion (hpl) and 3 days post-lesion (dpl), respectively. At 20 hpl, we detect a far higher number of DEGs in the lesioned hemisphere than in the unlesioned half and only 7% of all DEGs in both halves. However, this difference disappears at 3 dpl, where the lesioned and unlesioned hemispheres share 40% of all DEGs. By performing an extensive comparison of the gene expression profiles in these stages, we unravel that the lesioned hemispheres at 20 hpl and 3 dpl exhibit distinct transcriptional profiles. We further unveil a prominent activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling at 20 hpl, returning to control level in the lesioned site at 3 dpl. Wnt/β-catenin signaling indeed appears to control a large number of genes associated primarily with the p53, apoptosis, forkhead box O (FoxO), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathways specifically at 20 hpl. Based on these results, we propose that the lesioned and unlesioned hemispheres react to injury dynamically during telencephalon regeneration and that the activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling at the early wound healing stage plays a key role in the regulation of cellular and molecular events.

Gene expression changes in arterial and venous endothelial cells exposed to gestational diabetes mellitus

We investigated the molecular changes in fetoplacental blood vessel endothelial cells in gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). Raw gene expression profile data of arterial and venous endothelial cells from GDM complicated pregnancies and healthy controls were downloaded and used for bioinformatic analysis. There were two differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in venous endothelial cells and 178 DEGs in arterial endothelial cells induced by GDM. The altered genes were clustered to pathways associated with cell cycle, p53 signaling pathway, and cellular senescence. The disease associated gene-pathway network that was constructed comprised eight down-regulated genes (including FBXO5, CCNB1, and CDK1), one up-regulated gene (CCND2), hsa04068: FoxO signaling pathway and hsa04114: Oocyte mitosis pathway. CCND2 was a significant node in the microRNA (miRNA)-target network, which was regulated by seven miRNAs that included hsa-miR-1299, hsa-miR-1200, and hsa-miR-miR-593-5p. FBXO5 was a significant node regulated by two miRNAs. CCND2 and FBXO5 were also the significant nodes in the transcriptional factors-target network and integrated regulatory network. The cell cycle pathway was significantly altered in arterial endothelial cells during GDM, which was involved with the differential expression of CCND2 and FBXO5.

Dysregulation of metabolic flexibility: The impact of mTOR on autophagy in neurodegenerative disease

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) that involve neurodegenerative disorders and metabolic disease impact over 400 million individuals globally. Interestingly, metabolic disorders, such as diabetes mellitus, are significant risk factors for the development of neurodegenerative diseases. Given that current therapies for these NCDs address symptomatic care, new avenues of discovery are required to offer treatments that affect disease progression. Innovative strategies that fill this void involve the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) and its associated pathways of mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1), mTOR complex 2 (mTORC2), AMP activated protein kinase (AMPK), trophic factors that include erythropoietin (EPO), and the programmed cell death pathways of autophagy and apoptosis. These pathways are intriguing in their potential to provide effective care for metabolic and neurodegenerative disorders. Yet, future work is necessary to fully comprehend the entire breadth of the mTOR pathways that can effectively and safely translate treatments to clinical medicine without the development of unexpected clinical disabilities.

Role of Magnesium in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Magnesium (in its ionized and biologically active form, Mg²⁺) is an essential trace element that participates in numerous physiologic processes. Abnormal Mg²⁺ homeostasis can lead to many metabolic disorders, including diabetes mellitus (DM) and its complications. Mg²⁺ participates in energy generation and is required for DNA and RNA synthesis, reproduction, and protein synthesis. Additionally, Mg²⁺ acts as a calcium antagonist and protects vascular endothelial cells from oxidative stress. Imbalances in Mg²⁺ status, more frequently hypomagnesemia, inhibit glucose transporter type 4 translocation, increase insulin resistance, affect lipid metabolism, induce oxidative stress, and impair the antioxidant system of endothelial cells, In these ways, hypomagnesemia contributes to the initiation and progression of DM and its macrovascular and microvascular complications. In this review, we summarize recent advances in knowledge of the mechanisms whereby Mg²⁺ regulates insulin secretion and sensitivity. In addition, we discuss the future prospects for research regarding the mechanisms whereby Mg²⁺ status impacts DM and its complications.

New Insights for nicotinamide: Metabolic disease, autophagy, and mTOR

Metabolic disorders, such as diabetes mellitus (DM), are increasingly becoming significant risk factors for the health of the global population and consume substantial portions of the gross domestic product of all nations. Although conventional therapies that include early diagnosis, nutritional modification of diet, and pharmacological treatments may limit disease progression, tight serum glucose control cannot prevent the onset of future disease complications. With these concerns, novel strategies for the treatment of metabolic disorders that involve the vitamin nicotinamide, the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), mTOR Complex 1 (mTORC1), mTOR Complex 2 (mTORC2), AMP activated protein kinase (AMPK), and the cellular pathways of autophagy and apoptosis offer exceptional promise to provide new avenues of treatment. Oversight of these pathways can promote cellular energy homeostasis, maintain mitochondrial function, improve glucose utilization, and preserve pancreatic beta-cell function. Yet, the interplay among mTOR, AMPK, and autophagy pathways can be complex and affect desired clinical outcomes, necessitating further investigations to provide efficacious treatment strategies for metabolic dysfunction and DM.

A Review of FoxO1-Regulated Metabolic Diseases and Related Drug Discoveries

FoxO1 is a conserved transcription factor involved in energy metabolism. It is tightly regulated by modifications on its mRNA and protein and responds to environmental nutrient signals. FoxO1 controls the transcription of downstream genes mediating metabolic regulation. Dysfunction of FoxO1 pathways results in several metabolic diseases, including diabetes, obesity, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, and atherosclerosis. Here, we summarize the mechanism of FoxO1 regulation behind these diseases and FoxO1-related drug discoveries.

Prospects and Perspectives for WISP1 (CCN4) in Diabetes Mellitus

The prevalence of diabetes mellitus (DM) continues to increase throughout the world. In the United States (US) alone, approximately ten percent of the population is diagnosed with DM and another thirty-five percent of the population is considered to have prediabetes. Yet, current treatments for DM are limited and can fail to block the progression of multi-organ failure over time. Wnt1 inducible signaling pathway protein 1 (WISP1), also known as CCN4, is a matricellular protein that offers exceptional promise to address underlying disease progression and develop innovative therapies for DM. WISP1 holds an intricate relationship with other primary pathways of metabolism that include protein kinase B (Akt), mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), AMP activated protein kinase (AMPK), silent mating type information regulation 2 homolog 1 (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) (SIRT1), and mammalian forkhead transcription factors (FoxOs). WISP1 is an exciting prospect to foster vascular as well as neuronal cellular protection and regeneration, control cellular senescence, block oxidative stress injury, and maintain glucose homeostasis. However, under some scenarios WISP1 can promote tumorigenesis, lead to obesity progression with adipocyte hyperplasia, foster fibrotic hepatic disease, and lead to dysregulated inflammation with the progression of DM. Given these considerations, it is imperative to further elucidate the complex relationship WISP1 holds with other vital metabolic pathways to successfully develop WISP1 as a clinically effective target for DM and metabolic disorders.

Cognitive impairment with diabetes mellitus and metabolic disease: innovative insights with the mechanistic target of rapamycin and circadian clock gene pathways

Introduction: Dementia is the 7th leading cause of death that imposes a significant financial and service burden on the global population. Presently, only symptomatic care exists for cognitive loss, such as Alzheimer's disease.Areas covered: Given the advancing age of the global population, it becomes imperative to develop innovative therapeutic strategies for cognitive loss. New studies provide insight to the association of cognitive loss with metabolic disorders, such as diabetes mellitus.Expert opinion: Diabetes mellitus is increasing in incidence throughout the world and affects 350 million individuals. Treatment strategies identifying novel pathways that oversee metabolic and neurodegenerative disorders offer exciting prospects to treat dementia. The mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) and circadian clock gene pathways that include AMP activated protein kinase (AMPK), Wnt1 inducible signaling pathway protein 1 (WISP1), erythropoietin (EPO), and silent mating type information regulation 2 homolog 1 (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) (SIRT1) provide novel strategies to treat cognitive loss that has its basis in metabolic cellular dysfunction. However, these pathways are complex and require precise regulation to maximize treatment efficacy and minimize any potential clinical disability. Further investigations hold great promise to treat both the onset and progression of cognitive loss that is associated with metabolic disease.

Nicotinamide: Oversight of Metabolic Dysfunction Through SIRT1, mTOR, and Clock Genes

Metabolic disorders that include diabetes mellitus present significant challenges for maintaining the welfare of the global population. Metabolic diseases impact all systems of the body and despite current therapies that offer some protection through tight serum glucose control, ultimately such treatments cannot block the progression of disability and death realized with metabolic disorders. As a result, novel therapeutic avenues are critical for further development to address these concerns. An innovative strategy involves the vitamin nicotinamide and the pathways associated with the silent mating type information regulation 2 homolog 1 (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) (SIRT1), the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), mTOR Complex 1 (mTORC1), mTOR Complex 2 (mTORC2), AMP activated protein kinase (AMPK), and clock genes. Nicotinamide maintains an intimate relationship with these pathways to oversee metabolic disease and improve glucose utilization, limit mitochondrial dysfunction, block oxidative stress, potentially function as antiviral therapy, and foster cellular survival through mechanisms involving autophagy. However, the pathways of nicotinamide, SIRT1, mTOR, AMPK, and clock genes are complex and involve feedback pathways as well as trophic factors such as erythropoietin that require a careful balance to ensure metabolic homeostasis. Future work is warranted to gain additional insight into these vital pathways that can oversee both normal metabolic physiology and metabolic disease.

Post-transcriptional markers associated with clinical complications in Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes mellitus

The delayed diagnosis and the inadequate treatment of diabetes increase the risk of chronic complications. The study of regulatory molecules such as miRNAs can provide expression profiles of diabetes and diabetes complications. We evaluated the mononuclear cell miRNA profiles of 63 Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes patients presenting or not microvascular complications, and 40 healthy controls, using massive parallel sequencing. Gene targets, enriched pathways, dendograms and miRNA-mRNA networks were performed for the differentially expressed miRNAs. Six more relevant miRNAs were validated by RT-qPCR and data mining analysis. MiRNAs associated with specific complications included: i) neuropathy (miR-873-5p, miR-125a-5p, miR-145-3p and miR-99b-5p); ii) nephropathy (miR-1249-3p, miR-193a-5p, miR-409-5p, miR-1271-5p, miR-501-3p, miR-148b-3p and miR-9-5p); and iii) retinopathy (miR-143-3p, miR-1271-5p, miR-409-5p and miR-199a-5p). These miRNAs mainly targeted gene families and specific genes associated with advanced glycation end products and their receptors. Sets of miRNAs were also defined as potential targets for diabetes/diabetes complication pathogenesis.

FOXO1 Mediates Advanced Glycation End Products Induced Mouse Osteocyte-Like MLO-Y4 Cell Apoptosis and Dysfunctions

Osteocyte plays an essential role in bone metabolism by regulating osteoblast and osteoclast activities. Dysfunction or apoptosis of osteocyte will severely endanger the bone homeostasis and result in bone diseases such as osteoporosis. Osteoporosis has been considered as one of the diabetes complications; however, the mechanism is still to be discovered. Advanced glycation end products (AGEs), as the main pathogenic factor of diabetes mellitus, have the capacity to induce osteocyte apoptosis thus sabotaging bone homeostasis. Here, we examined the role of AGE during osteocyte apoptosis and how this effect would affect osteocyte's regulation of osteoblast and osteoclast. Mouse osteocyte-like MLO-Y4 cells were used to study the properties of osteocyte and to examine its biological and pathological function. MTT assay and Annexin V assay showed that AGE significantly induce MLO-Y4 cell apoptosis. qPCR and Western blot results have shown that AGE upregulates proapoptotic gene p53 and its downstream target gene Bax, which leads to enhanced activation of caspase-3, thus inducing apoptosis in MLO-Y4 cells. Increased expression of sclerostin and RANKL in osteocytes has shown that AGE induces osteocyte dysfunction thus severely damaging the bone homeostasis by decreasing osteoblast and increasing osteoclast activities. Furthermore, the role of the transcription factor FOXO1, which is intensely associated with apoptosis, has been determined. Western blot has shown that AGE significantly decreases Akt activities. Immunofluorescence has shown that AGE promotes FOXO1 nuclei localization and enhances FOXO1 expression. Silencing of FOXO1 suppressed AGE-enhanced apoptosis; mRNA and protein expressions of cleaved caspase-3, sclerostin, and RANKL were downregulated as well. Moreover, exogenous FOXO1 increased caspase-3 mRNA levels and caspase-3 transcriptional activity. Lastly, ChIP assay has established the capacity of FOXO1 binding directly on the caspase-3, sclerostin, and RANKL promoter region in AGE environment, providing the mechanism of the AGE-induced osteocyte apoptosis and dysfunction. Our results have shown that FOXO1 plays a crucial role in AGE-induced osteocyte dysfunction and apoptosis through its regulation of caspase-3, sclerostin, and RANKL. This study provides new insight into diabetes-enhanced risk of osteoporosis given the critical role of AGE in the pathogenesis of diabetes and the essential part of osteocyte in bone metabolism.

Expression of mitochondrial dysfunction-related genes and pathways in paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy in breast cancer survivors

Background

Paclitaxel is one of the most commonly used drugs to treat breast cancer. Its major dose-limiting toxicity is paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy (PIPN). PIPN persists into survivorship and has a negative impact on patient’s mood, functional status, and quality of life. No interventions are available to treat PIPN. A critical barrier to the development of efficacious interventions is the lack of understanding of the mechanisms that underlie PIPN. Mitochondrial dysfunction has been evaluated in preclinical studies as a hypothesized mechanism for PIPN, but clinical data to support this hypothesis are limited. The purpose of this pilot study was to evaluate for differential gene expression and perturbed pathways between breast cancer survivors with and without PIPN.

Methods

Gene expression in peripheral blood was assayed using RNA-seq. Differentially expressed genes (DEG) and pathways associated with mitochondrial dysfunction were identified between survivors who received paclitaxel and did (n = 25) and did not (n = 25) develop PIPN.

Results

Breast cancer survivors with PIPN were significantly older; more likely to be unemployed; reported lower alcohol use; had a higher body mass index and poorer functional status; and had a higher number of lower extremity sites with loss of light touch, cold, and pain sensations and higher vibration thresholds. No between-group differences were found in the cumulative dose of paclitaxel received or in the percentage of patients who had a dose reduction or delay due to PIPN. Five DEGs and nine perturbed pathways were associated with mitochondrial dysfunction related to oxidative stress, iron homeostasis, mitochondrial fission, apoptosis, and autophagy.

Conclusions

This study is the first to provide molecular evidence that a number of mitochondrial dysfunction mechanisms identified in preclinical models of various types of neuropathic pain including chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy are found in breast cancer survivors with persistent PIPN and suggest genes for validation and as potential therapeutic targets.

Metabolic Regulation of Angiogenesis in Diabetes and Aging

Impaired angiogenesis and endothelial dysfunction are hallmarks of diabetes and aging. Clinical efforts at promoting angiogenesis have largely focused on growth factor pathways, with mixed results. Recently, a new repertoire of endothelial intracellular molecules critical to endothelial metabolism has emerged as playing an important role in regulating angiogenesis. This review thus focuses on the emerging importance and therapeutic potential of these proteins and of endothelial bioenergetics in diabetes and aging.

Resveratrol Ameliorates Cardiac Dysfunction by Inhibiting Apoptosis via the PI3K/Akt/FoxO3a Pathway in a Rat Model of Diabetic Cardiomyopathy

The aim of this study was to explore the effect and mechanism of action of resveratrol (RSV) on cardiac function in diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM). Hyperglycemia-induced apoptosis contributes to the pathogenic changes in DCM. RSV treatment inhibited high glucose-induced apoptosis of neonatal rat ventricular myocytes. Additionally, high glucose decreased cell viability, prevented serine-threonine kinase (Akt) and FoxO3a phosphorylation, and suppressed cytoplasmic translocation of FoxO3a. However, these effects of apoptosis were reversed by 10 μM of RSV. The PI3K inhibitor LY294002 abolished the RSV protective effect in vitro. RSV (5 or 50 mg·kg·d orally for 8 weeks) prevented the deterioration of cardiac function and structural cardiomyopathy in a streptozotocin-induced rat model of diabetes and reduced apoptosis in diabetic myocardium. Furthermore, it restored streptozotocin-impaired phosphorylation of Akt and FoxO3a (p-Akt and p-FoxO3a) and suppressed nuclear translocation of FoxO3a in vivo. Together, these data indicate that RSV has therapeutic potential against DCM by inhibiting apoptosis via the PI3K/Akt/FoxO3a pathway.

Moving to the Rhythm with Clock (Circadian) Genes, Autophagy, mTOR, and SIRT1 in Degenerative Disease and Cancer

BACKGROUND

The mammalian circadian clock and its associated clock genes are increasingly been recognized as critical components for a number of physiological and disease processes that extend beyond hormone release, thermal regulation, and sleep-wake cycles. New evidence suggests that clinical behavior disruptions that involve prolonged shift work and even space travel may negatively impact circadian rhythm and lead to multi-system disease.

METHODS

In light of the significant role circadian rhythm can hold over the body's normal physiology as well as disease processes, we examined and discussed the impact circadian rhythm and clock genes hold over lifespan, neurodegenerative disorders, and tumorigenesis.

RESULTS

In experimental models, lifespan is significantly reduced with the introduction of arrhythmic mutants and leads to an increase in oxidative stress exposure. Interestingly, patients with Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease may suffer disease onset or progression as a result of alterations in the DNA methylation of clock genes as well as prolonged pharmacological treatment for these disorders that may lead to impairment of circadian rhythm function. Tumorigenesis also can occur with the loss of a maintained circadian rhythm and lead to an increased risk for nasopharyngeal carcinoma, breast cancer, and metastatic colorectal cancer. Interestingly, the circadian clock system relies upon the regulation of the critical pathways of autophagy, the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), AMP activated protein kinase (AMPK), and silent mating type information regulation 2 homolog 1 (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) (SIRT1) as well as proliferative mechanisms that involve the wingless pathway of Wnt/β-catenin pathway to foster cell survival during injury and block tumor cell growth.

CONCLUSION

Future targeting of the pathways of autophagy, mTOR, SIRT1, and Wnt that control mammalian circadian rhythm may hold the key for the development of novel and effective therapies against aging- related disorders, neurodegenerative disease, and tumorigenesis.

The mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) and the silent mating-type information regulation 2 homolog 1 (SIRT1): oversight for neurodegenerative disorders

As a result of the advancing age of the global population and the progressive increase in lifespan, neurodegenerative disorders continue to increase in incidence throughout the world. New strategies for neurodegenerative disorders involve the novel pathways of the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) and the silent mating-type information regulation 2 homolog 1 (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) (SIRT1) that can modulate pathways of apoptosis and autophagy. The pathways of mTOR and SIRT1 are closely integrated. mTOR forms the complexes mTOR Complex 1 and mTOR Complex 2 and can impact multiple neurodegenerative disorders that include Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, and Parkinson's disease. SIRT1 can control stem cell proliferation, block neuronal injury through limiting programmed cell death, drive vascular cell survival, and control clinical disorders that include dementia and retinopathy. It is important to recognize that oversight of programmed cell death by mTOR and SIRT1 requires a fine degree of precision to prevent the progression of neurodegenerative disorders. Additional investigations and insights into these pathways should offer effective and safe treatments for neurodegenerative disorders.

FoxO transcription factors in cancer metabolism

FoxO transcription factors serve as the central regulator of cellular homeostasis and are tumor suppressors in human cancers. Recent studies have revealed that, besides their classic functions in promoting cell death and inducing cell cycle arrest, FoxOs also regulate cancer metabolism, an emerging hallmark of cancer. In this review, we summarize the regulatory mechanisms employed to control FoxO activities in the context of cancer biology, and discuss FoxO function in metabolism reprogramming in cancer and interaction with other key cancer metabolism pathways. A deeper understanding of FoxOs in cancer metabolism may reveal novel therapeutic opportunities in cancer treatment.

Sirtuins: Developing Innovative Treatments for Aged-Related Memory Loss and Alzheimer's Disease

The world's population continues to age at a rapid pace. By the year 2050, individuals over the age of 65 will account for sixteen percent of the world's population and life expectancy will increase well over eighty years of age. Accompanied by the aging of the global population is a significant rise in Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs). Neurodegenerative disorders will form a significant component for NCDs. Currently, dementia is the 7th leading cause of death and can be the result of multiple causes that include diabetes mellitus, vascular disease, and Alzheimer's Disease (AD). AD may represent at least sixty percent of these cases. Current treatment for these disorders is extremely limited to provide only some symptomatic relief at present. Sirtuins and in particular, the silent mating type information regulation 2 homolog 1 (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) (SIRT1), represent innovative strategies for the treatment of cognitive loss. New work has revealed that SIRT1 provides protection against memory loss through mechanisms that involve oxidative stress, Aβ toxicity, neurofibrillary degeneration, vascular injury, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neuronal loss. In addition, SIRT1 relies upon other avenues that can include trophic factors, such as erythropoietin, and signaling pathways, such as Wnt1 inducible signaling pathway protein 1 (WISP1/CCN4). Yet, SIRT1 can have detrimental effects as well that involve tumorigenesis and blockade of stem cell differentiation and maturation that can limit reparative processes for cognitive loss. Further investigations with sirtuins and SIRT1 should be able to capitalize upon these novel targets for dementia and cognitive loss.

Novel Treatment Strategies for the Nervous System: Circadian Clock Genes, Non-coding RNAs, and Forkhead Transcription Factors

BACKGROUND

With the global increase in lifespan expectancy, neurodegenerative disorders continue to affect an ever-increasing number of individuals throughout the world. New treatment strategies for neurodegenerative diseases are desperately required given the lack of current treatment modalities.

METHODS

Here, we examine novel strategies for neurodegenerative disorders that include circadian clock genes, non-coding Ribonucleic Acids (RNAs), and the mammalian forkhead transcription factors of the O class (FoxOs).

RESULTS

Circadian clock genes, non-coding RNAs, and FoxOs offer exciting prospects to potentially limit or remove the significant disability and death associated with neurodegenerative disorders. Each of these pathways has an intimate relationship with the programmed death pathways of autophagy and apoptosis and share a common link to the silent mating type information regulation 2 homolog 1 (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) (SIRT1) and the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR). Circadian clock genes are necessary to modulate autophagy, limit cognitive loss, and prevent neuronal injury. Non-coding RNAs can control neuronal stem cell development and neuronal differentiation and offer protection against vascular disease such as atherosclerosis. FoxOs provide exciting prospects to block neuronal apoptotic death and to activate pathways of autophagy to remove toxic accumulations in neurons that can lead to neurodegenerative disorders.

CONCLUSION

Continued work with circadian clock genes, non-coding RNAs, and FoxOs can offer new prospects and hope for the development of vital strategies for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. These innovative investigative avenues have the potential to significantly limit disability and death from these devastating disorders.

Erythropoietin and mTOR: A "One-Two Punch" for Aging-Related Disorders Accompanied by Enhanced Life Expectancy

Life expectancy continues to increase throughout the world, but is accompanied by a rise in the incidence of non-communicable diseases. As a result, the benefits of an increased lifespan can be limited by aging-related disorders that necessitate new directives for the development of effective and safe treatment modalities. With this objective, the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), a 289-kDa serine/threonine protein, and its related pathways of mTOR Complex 1 (mTORC1), mTOR Complex 2 (mTORC2), proline rich Akt substrate 40 kDa (PRAS40), AMP activated protein kinase (AMPK), Wnt signaling, and silent mating type information regulation 2 homolog 1 (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) (SIRT1), have generated significant excitement for furthering novel therapies applicable to multiple systems of the body. Yet, the biological and clinical outcome of these pathways can be complex especially with oversight of cell death mechanisms that involve apoptosis and autophagy. Growth factors, and in particular erythropoietin (EPO), are one avenue under consideration to implement control over cell death pathways since EPO can offer potential treatment for multiple disease entities and is intimately dependent upon mTOR signaling. In experimental and clinical studies, EPO appears to have significant efficacy in treating several disorders including those involving the developing brain. However, in mature populations that are affected by aging-related disorders, the direction for the use of EPO to treat clinical disease is less clear that may be dependent upon a number of factors including the understanding of mTOR signaling. Continued focus upon the regulatory elements that control EPO and mTOR signaling could generate critical insights for targeting a broad range of clinical maladies.

Lingguizhugan decoction improves non-alcoholic fatty liver disease by altering insulin resistance and lipid metabolism related genes: a whole trancriptome study by RNA-Seq

Lingguizhugan decoction, a classic traditional Chinese medicine formula, has been used to treat non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), however, the underlying mechanisms remains unclear. In the present study, we compared the phenotype of the normal rats (fed with chow diet), high-fat-diet (HFD) induced NAFLD rats and Lingguizhugan decoction (LGZG, comprises four Chinese herbs: Poria, Ramulus Cinnamomi, Rhizoma Atractylodis Macrocephalae, and Radix Glycyrrhizae.) intervened rats, and detected whole genome gene expression by RNA-Seq. Our results demonstrated that LGZG decoction attenuated phenotypic characteristics of NAFLD rats. RNA-Seq data analysis revealed that gene expression profiles exerted differential patterns between different groups. 2690 (1445 up-regulated, 1245 down-regulated) genes in NAFLD versus (vs) normal group, 69 (16 up-regulated, 53 down-regulated) genes in LGZG vs NAFLD group, and 42 overlapped (12 up- regulated, 30 down-regulated) genes between NAFLDvs normal group and LGZG vs NAFLD group were identified as differentially expressed. GO, pathway enrichment and PPI networks analysis of the overlapped genes revealed that LGZG decoction might attenuate NAFLD possibly by affecting insulin resistance and lipid metabolism related pathways (e.g., PI3K-Akt, AMPK). Differentially expressed genes involved in these pathways such as Pik3r1, Foxo1, Foxo3, Scd1, Col3a1 and Fn1 might be candidate targets for treating NAFLD.

Leucine-nicotinic acid synergy stimulates AMPK/Sirt1 signaling and regulates lipid metabolism and lifespan in Caenorhabditis elegans, and hyperlipidemia and atherosclerosis in mice

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Nicotinic acid (NA), a lipid-lowering drug, serves as a source of NAD⁺, the cofactor for Sirt1. Leucine (Leu) stimulates the AMPK/Sirt1 axis and amplifies the effects of other AMPK/Sirt1 activating compounds. Therefore, we tested the interactive effects of leucine and low dose NA on AMPK/Sirt1 signaling and downstream effects of lipid metabolism in cell culture, C. elegans and mice.

METHODS

LDL-receptor knockout mice were fed an atherogenic Western diet supplemented with leucine (24 g/kg diet) and sub-therapeutic NA combinations (50 mg/kg diet and 250 mg/kg diet) or low therapeutic NA (1000 mg/kg diet) for 8 weeks to evaluate markers of hyperlipidemia and atherosclerosis.

RESULTS

NA-Leu increased P-AMPK and Sirt1 in adipocytes and myotubes. In C. elegans, NA-Leu increased P-AMPK and DAF-16 (FOXO), reduced lipid accumulation and increased median survival under mild oxidative stress conditions. In the mice, NA-Leu reduced total cholesterol, cholesterol esters, plasma triglycerides, atherosclerotic lesion size, lipid area, and aortic macrophage infiltration, similar to the therapeutic NA dose.

CONCLUSION

Leu amplifies the effects of NA on lipid metabolism, hyperlipidemia and atherosclerosis in mice, at least in part by activation of the AMPK/Sirt1 axis. This combination may be a potential therapeutic alternative for hyperlipidemia and atherosclerosis.

Forkhead Transcription Factors: Formulating a FOXO Target for Cognitive Loss

BACKGROUND

With almost 47 million individuals worldwide suffering from some aspect of dementia, it is clear that cognitive loss impacts a significant proportion of the global population. Unfortunately, definitive treatments to resolve or prevent the onset of cognitive loss are limited. In most cases such care is currently non-existent prompting the need for novel treatment strategies.

METHODS

Mammalian forkhead transcription factors of the O class (FoxO) are one such avenue of investigation that offer an exciting potential to bring new treatments forward for disorders that involve cognitive loss. Here we examine the background, structure, expression, and function of FoxO transcription factors and their role in cognitive loss, programmed cell death in the nervous system with apoptosis and autophagy, and areas to target FoxOs for dementia and specific disorders such as Alzheimer's disease.

RESULTS

FoxO proteins work in concert with a number of other cell survival pathways that involve growth factors, such as erythropoietin and neurotrophins, silent mating type information regulation 2 homolog 1 (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) (SIRT1), Wnt1 inducible signaling pathway protein 1 (WISP1), Wnt signaling, and cancer-related pathways. FoxO transcription factors oversee proinflammatory pathways, affect nervous system amyloid (Aβ) production and toxicity, lead to mitochondrial dysfunction, foster neuronal apoptotic cell death, and accelerate the progression of degenerative disease. However, under some scenarios such as those involving autophagy, FoxOs also can offer protection in the nervous system and reduce toxic intracellular protein accumulations and potentially limit Aβ toxicity.

CONCLUSION

Given the ability of FoxOs to not only promote apoptotic cell death in the nervous system, but also through the induction of autophagy offer protection against degenerative disease that can lead to dementia, a fine balance in the activity of FoxOs may be required to target cognitive loss in individuals. Future work should yield exciting new prospects for FoxO proteins as new targets to treat the onset and progression of cognitive loss and dementia.

Harnessing the Power of SIRT1 and Non-coding RNAs in Vascular Disease

Noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) contribute to a significant amount of disability and death in the world. Of these disorders, vascular disease is ranked high, falls within the five leading causes of death, and impacts multiple other disease entities such as those of the cardiac system, nervous system, and metabolic disease. Targeting the silent mating type information regulation 2 homolog 1 (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) (SIRT1) pathway and the modulation of micro ribonucleic acids (miRNAs) may hold great promise for the development of novel strategies for the treatment of vascular disease since each of these pathways are highly relevant to cardiac and nervous system disorders as well as to metabolic dysfunction. SIRT1 is vital in determining the course of stem cell development and the survival, metabolism, and life span of differentiated cells that are overseen by both autophagy and apoptosis. SIRT1 interfaces with a number of pathways that involve forkhead transcription factors, mechanistic of rapamycin (mTOR), AMP activated protein kinase (AMPK) and Wnt1 inducible signaling pathway protein 1 (WISP1) such that the level of activity of SIRT1 can become a critical determinant for biological and clinical outcomes. The essential fine control of SIRT1 is directly tied to the world of non-coding RNAs that ultimately oversee SIRT1 activity to either extend or end cellular survival. Future studies that can further elucidate the crosstalk between SIRT1 and non-coding RNAs should serve well our ability to harness the power of SIRT1 and non-coding RNAs for the treatment of vascular disorders.

Disease onset and aging in the world of circular RNAs

Circular ribonucleic acids (circRNAs) are non-coding RNAs of approximately 100 nucleotides in length with thousands of members in mammalian cells. The presence of circRNAs is believed to be even greater than that of messenger RNAs. Identification of circRNAs occurred approximately 37 years ago with the subsequent demonstration that covalent bonds are necessary for the unique circular structure of these ribonucleic acids. However, present understanding of the complex biological role of circRNAs remains limited and requires further elucidation. CircRNAs may impact aging, multiple disorders, function as biomarkers, and are able to regulate gene expression by acting as effective microRNA (miRNA) sponges. New work suggests that circRNAs are vital for the modulation of cellular senescence and programmed cell death pathways such as apoptosis. These non-coding RNAs can control cell cycle progression, cellular proliferation, and cellular survival impacting disorders linked to aging, cardiovascular disease, and atherosclerosis through pathways that involve cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (CDK2), cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1 (p21), and mammalian forkhead transcription factors. In addition, circRNAs can oversee cellular metabolism and disorders such as diabetes mellitus through the regulation of insulin signaling as well as limit tumor progression through Wnt signaling and β-catenin pathways. Further understanding of the biology of circRNAs offers great promise for the targeting of novel strategies against a wide spectrum of disease entities.

Forkhead transcription factors: new considerations for alzheimer's disease and dementia

Life expectancy of individuals in both developed and undeveloped nations continues to rise at an unprecedented rate. Coupled to this increase in longevity for individuals is the rise in the incidence of chronic neurodegenerative disorders that includes Alzheimer's disease (AD). Currently, almost ten percent of the population over the age of 65 suffers from AD, a disorder that is presently without definitive therapy to prevent the onset or progression of cognitive loss. Yet, it is estimated that AD will continue to significantly increase throughout the world to impact millions of individuals and foster the escalation of healthcare costs. One potential target for the development of novel strategies against AD and other cognitive disorders involves the mammalian forkhead transcription factors of the O class (FoxOs). FoxOs are present in "cognitive centers" of the brain to include the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the nucleus accumbens and may be required for memory formation and consolidation. FoxOs play a critical role in determining survival of multiple cell types in the nervous system, drive pathways of apoptosis and autophagy, and control stem cell proliferation and differentiation. FoxOs also interface with multiple cellular pathways that include growth factors, Wnt signaling, Wnt1 inducible signaling pathway protein 1 (WISP1), and silent mating type information regulation 2 homolog 1 (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) (SIRT1) that ultimately may control FoxOs and determine the fate and function of cells in the nervous system that control memory and cognition. Future work that can further elucidate the complex relationship FoxOs hold over cell fate and cognitive function could yield exciting prospects for the treatment of a number of neurodegenerative disorders including AD.

Novel nervous and multi-system regenerative therapeutic strategies for diabetes mellitus with mTOR

Throughout the globe, diabetes mellitus (DM) is increasing in incidence with limited therapies presently available to prevent or resolve the significant complications of this disorder. DM impacts multiple organs and affects all components of the central and peripheral nervous systems that can range from dementia to diabetic neuropathy. The mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a promising agent for the development of novel regenerative strategies for the treatment of DM. mTOR and its related signaling pathways impact multiple metabolic parameters that include cellular metabolic homeostasis, insulin resistance, insulin secretion, stem cell proliferation and differentiation, pancreatic β-cell function, and programmed cell death with apoptosis and autophagy. mTOR is central element for the protein complexes mTOR Complex 1 (mTORC1) and mTOR Complex 2 (mTORC2) and is a critical component for a number of signaling pathways that involve phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI 3-K), protein kinase B (Akt), AMP activated protein kinase (AMPK), silent mating type information regulation 2 homolog 1 (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) (SIRT1), Wnt1 inducible signaling pathway protein 1 (WISP1), and growth factors. As a result, mTOR represents an exciting target to offer new clinical avenues for the treatment of DM and the complications of this disease. Future studies directed to elucidate the delicate balance mTOR holds over cellular metabolism and the impact of its broad signaling pathways should foster the translation of these targets into effective clinical regimens for DM.

The bright side of reactive oxygen species: lifespan extension without cellular demise

Oxidative stress and the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) can lead to mitochondrial dysfunction, DNA damage, protein misfolding, programmed cell death with apoptosis and autophagy, and the promotion of aging –dependent processes. Mitochondria control the processing of redox energy that yields adenosine triphosphate (ATP) through the oxidation of glucose, pyruvate, and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide. Ultimately, the generation of ROS occurs with the aerobic production of ATP. Although reduced levels of ROS may lead to tolerance against metabolic, mechanical, and oxidative stressors and the generation of brief periods of ROS during ischemia-reperfusion models may limit cellular injury, under most circumstances ROS and mitochondrial dysfunction can lead to apoptotic caspase activation and autophagy induction that can result in cellular demise. Yet, new work suggests that ROS generation may have a positive impact through respiratory complex I reverse electron transport that can extend lifespan. Such mechanisms may bring new insight into clinically relevant disorders that are linked to cellular senescence and aging of the body’s system. Further investigation of the potential “bright side” of ROS and mitochondrial respiration is necessary to target specific pathways, such as the mechanistic target of rapamycin, nicotinamidases, sirtuins, mRNA decoupling and protein expression, and Wnt signaling, that can impact oxidative stress-ROS mechanisms to extend lifespan and eliminate disease onset.

Pancreatic β Cell Mass Death

Type two diabetes (T2D) is a challenging metabolic disorder for which a cure has not yet been found. Its etiology is associated with several phenomena, including significant loss of insulin-producing, beta cell (β cell) mass via progressive programmed cell death and disrupted cellular autophagy. In diabetes, the etiology of β cell death and the role of mitochondria are complex and involve several layers of mechanisms. Understanding the dynamics of those mechanisms could permit researchers to develop an intervention for the progressive loss of β cells. Currently, diabetes research has shifted toward rejuvenation and plasticity technology and away from the simplified approach of hormonal compensation. Diabetes research is currently challenged by questions such as how to enhance cell survival, decrease apoptosis and replenish β cell mass in diabetic patients. In this review, we discuss evidence that β cell development and mass formation are guided by specific signaling systems, particularly hormones, transcription factors, and growth factors, all of which could be manipulated to enhance mass growth. There is also strong evidence that β cells are dynamically active cells, which, under specific conditions such as obesity, can increase in size and subsequently increase insulin secretion. In certain cases of aggressive or advanced forms of T2D, β cells become markedly impaired, and the only alternatives for maintaining glucose homeostasis are through partial or complete cell grafting (the Edmonton protocol). In these cases, the harvesting of an enriched population of viable β cells is required for transplantation. This task necessitates a deep understanding of the pharmacological agents that affect β cell survival, mass, and function. The aim of this review is to initiate discussion about the important signals in pancreatic β cell development and mass formation and to highlight the process by which cell death occurs in diabetes. This review also examines the attempts that have been made to recover or increase cell mass in diabetic patients by using various pharmacological agents.

Forkhead box transcription factor 1: role in the pathogenesis of diabetic cardiomyopathy

Diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a disorder of the heart muscle in people with diabetes that can occur independent of hypertension or vascular disease. The underlying mechanism of DCM is incompletely understood. Some transcription factors have been suggested to regulate the gene program intricate in the pathogenesis of diabetes prompted cardiac injury. Forkhead box transcription factor 1 is a pleiotropic transcription factor that plays a pivotal role in a variety of physiological processes. Altered FOXO1 expression and function have been associated with cardiovascular diseases, and the important role of FOXO1 in DCM has begun to attract attention. In this review, we focus on the FOXO1 pathway and its role in various processes that have been related to DCM, such as metabolism, oxidative stress, endothelial dysfunction, inflammation and apoptosis.