Resveratrol in Various Pockets: A Review

Prediction of resveratrol target proteins: a bioinformatics analysis

Resveratrol is a natural compound with a wide range of biological functions that generate health benefits under normal conditions and in multiple diseases. This has attracted the attention of the scientific community, which has revealed that this compound exerts these effects through its action on different proteins. Despite the great efforts made, due to the challenges involved, not all the proteins with which resveratrol interacts have yet been identified. In this work, using protein target prediction bioinformatics systems, RNA sequencing analysis and protein-protein interaction networks, 16 proteins were identified as potential targets of resveratrol. Due to its biological relevance, the interaction of resveratrol with the predicted target CDK5 was further investigated. A docking analysis found that resveratrol can interact with CDK5 and be positioned in its ATP-binding pocket. Resveratrol forms hydrogen bonds between its three hydroxyl groups (-OH) and CDK5 residues C83, D86, K89 and D144. Molecular dynamics analysis showed that these bonds allow resveratrol to remain in the pocket and suggest inhibition of CDK5 activity. All this allows us to better understand how resveratrol acts and to consider CDK5 inhibition within its biological actions, mainly in neurodegenerative diseases where this protein has been shown to be relevant.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Effect of in vitro simulated digestion on the anti-Helicobacter Pylori activity of different Propolis extracts

Helicobacter pylori (HP) is among the most common pathogens causing infection in humans worldwide. Oxidative stress and gastric inflammation are involved in the progression of HP-related gastric diseases, and they can be targeted by integrating conventional antibiotic treatment with polyphenol-enriched natural products. In this work, we characterised three different propolis extracts and evaluated their stability under in vitro simulated gastric digestion, compared to their main constituents alone. The extract with the highest stability to digestion (namely, the dark propolis extract, DPE) showed a minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) lower than 1 mg/mL on HP strains with different virulence factors. Finally, since urease is one of the virulence factors contributing to the establishment of a microenvironment that promotes HP infection, we evaluated the possible inhibition of this enzyme by using molecular docking simulations and in vitro colorimetric assay, showing that galangin and pinocembrin may be involved in this activity.

Radial Extracorporeal Shock Wave Therapy Combined with Resveratrol Derivative Alleviates Chronic Nonbacterial Prostatitis in Rats

Resveratrol (Res) is a non-flavonoid polyphenol compound with biological pleiotropic properties, but low bioavailability limits its application value. Here, we synthesized a new Res derivative ((E)-5-(dimethylamino)-2-(4-methoxystyryl)phenol), and attempted to determine the function of Res derivative combined with radial extracorporeal shock wave therapy (rESWT) in chronic nonbacterial prostatitis (CNP). CNP model rats were constructed by subcutaneous administration of prostatein suspension (15 mg/ml), followed by rESWT treatment alone or in associated with Res or Res derivatives. In this study, inflammatory cell infiltration and tissue fibrosis in the prostate tissues of CNP rats were significantly deteriorated, which was effectively abolished by rESWT treatment alone or in combination with Res or Res derivative. The expression of interleukin 1β (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), nerve growth factor (NGF), and nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) were increased, while silent information regulator 1 (SIRT1) expression was suppressed in the prostate tissues of CNP rats, which were then rescued by rESWT treatment alone or in associated with Res or Res derivative. Importantly, compared with Res derivative treatment alone or rESWT combined with Res treatment, combination treatment with rESWT and Res derivative was more effective in alleviating inflammation and fibrosis, in reducing IL-1β, TNF-α, NGF, and SIRT1 expression, and in facilitating SIRT1 expression. Overall, rESWT combined with Res derivative treatment improved CNP in rat by reducing inflammation and fibrosis, which attributed to regulate the expression of SIRT1 and NF-κB. Thus, this work provides a theoretical basis for rESWT combined with Res derivative in the clinical treatment of CNP.

Resveratrol and Its Role in the Management of B-Cell Malignancies-A Recent Update

The growing incidence of B cell malignancies globally has prompted research on the pharmacological properties of phytoconstituents in cancer management. Resveratrol, a polyphenolic stilbenoid widely found in nature, has been explored for its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, and promising results from different pre-clinical studies have indicated its potential for management of B cell malignancies. However, these claims must be substantiated by a greater number of clinical trials in diverse populations, in order to establish its safety and efficacy profile. In addition to this, there is a need to explore nanodelivery of this agent, owing to its poor solubility, which in turn may impact its bioavailability. This review aims to offer an overview of the occurrence and pathogenesis of B cell malignancies with a special focus on the inflammatory pathways involved, the mechanism of actions of resveratrol and its pharmacokinetic profile, results from pre-clinical and clinical studies, as well as an overview of the marketed formulations. The authors have also presented their opinion on the various challenges associated with the clinical development of resveratrol and future perspectives regarding therapeutic applications of this agent.

Dietary stilbenes as modulators of specific miRNAs in prostate cancer

Accumulated experimental data have suggested that natural plant products may be effective miRNA-modulating chemopreventive and therapeutic agents. Dietary polyphenols such as flavonoids, stilbenes, and lignans, among others, have been intensively studied for their miRNA-mediated cardioprotective, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anticancer properties. The aim of this review is to outline known stilbene-regulated miRNAs in cancer, with a special focus on the interplay between various miRNAs and MTA1 signaling in prostate cancer. MTA1 is an epigenetic reader and an oncogenic transcription factor that is overexpressed in advanced prostate cancer and metastasis. Not surprisingly, miRNAs that are linked to MTA1 affect cancer progression and the metastatic potential of cells. Studies led to the identification of MTA1-associated pro-oncogenic miRNAs, which are regulated by stilbenes such as resveratrol and pterostilbene. Specifically, it has been shown that inhibition of the activity of the MTA1 regulated oncogenic miR-17 family of miRNAs, miR-22, and miR-34a by stilbenes leads to inhibition of prostatic hyperplasia and tumor progression in mice and reduction of proliferation, survival and invasion of prostate cancer cells in vitro. Taken together, these findings implicate the use of resveratrol and its analogs as an attractive miRNA-mediated chemopreventive and therapeutic strategy in prostate cancer and the use of circulating miRNAs as potential predictive biomarkers for clinical development.

Exploring the Novel Computational Drug Target and Associated Key Pathways of Oral Cancer

Oral cancer (OC) is a serious health concern that has a high fatality rate. The oral cavity has seven kinds of OC, including the lip, tongue, and floor of the mouth, as well as the buccal, hard palate, alveolar, retromolar trigone, and soft palate. The goal of this study is to look into new biomarkers and important pathways that might be used as diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic candidates in OC. The publicly available repository the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) was to the source for the collection of OC-related datasets. GSE74530, GSE23558, and GSE3524 microarray datasets were collected for analysis. Minimum cut-off criteria of |log fold-change (FC)| > 1 and adjusted p < 0.05 were applied to calculate the upregulated and downregulated differential expression genes (DEGs) from the three datasets. After that only common DEGs in all three datasets were collected to apply further analysis. Gene ontology (GO) and pathway analysis were implemented to explore the functional behaviors of DEGs. Then protein−protein interaction (PPI) networks were built to identify the most active genes, and a clustering algorithm was also implemented to identify complex parts of PPI. TF-miRNA networks were also constructed to study OC-associated DEGs in-depth. Finally, top gene performers from PPI networks were used to apply drug signature analysis. After applying filtration and cut-off criteria, 2508, 3377, and 670 DEGs were found for GSE74530, GSE23558, and GSE3524 respectively, and 166 common DEGs were found in every dataset. The GO annotation remarks that most of the DEGs were associated with the terms of type I interferon signaling pathway. The pathways of KEGG reported that the common DEGs are related to the cell cycle and influenza A. The PPI network holds 88 nodes and 492 edges, and CDC6 had the highest number of connections. Four clusters were identified from the PPI. Drug signatures doxorubicin and resveratrol showed high significance according to the hub genes. We anticipate that our bioinformatics research will aid in the definition of OC pathophysiology and the development of new therapies for OC.

Resveratrol-Schiff Base Hybrid Compounds with Selective Antibacterial Activity: Synthesis, Biological Activity, and Computational Study

Nowadays, antimicrobial resistance is a serious concern associated with the reduced efficacy of traditional antibiotics and an increased health burden worldwide. In response to this challenge, the scientific community is developing a new generation of antibacterial molecules. Contributing to this effort, and inspired by the resveratrol structure, five new resveratrol-dimers (9a−9e) and one resveratrol-monomer (10a) were synthetized using 2,5-dibromo-1,4-diaminobenzene (8) as the core compound for Schiff base bridge conformation. These compounds were evaluated in vitro against pathogenic clinical isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus sp., and Listeria monocytogenes. Antibacterial activity measurements of resveratrol-Schiff base derivatives (9a−9e) and their precursors (4−8) showed high selectivity against Listeria monocytogenes, being 2.5 and 13.7 times more potent than chloramphenicol, while resveratrol showed an EC50 > 320 µg/mL on the same model. Moreover, a prospective mechanism of action for these compounds against L. monocytogenes strains was proposed using molecular docking analysis, finding a plausible inhibition of internalin C (InlC), a surface protein relevant in bacteria−host interaction. These results would allow for the future development of new molecules for listeriosis treatment based on compound 8.

Resveratrol mediates the miR-149/HMGB1 axis and regulates the ferroptosis pathway to protect myocardium in endotoxemia mice

Endotoxemia is a common complication often used to model the acute inflammatory response associated with endotoxemia. Resveratrol has been shown to exert a wide range of therapeutic effects due to its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. This study explored the effect of resveratrol on endotoxemia. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced endotoxemia mouse model and endotoxemia myocardial injury cell model were established and treated with resveratrol. Cardiomyocyte activity, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) content in cell supernatant, glutathione (GSH) consumption, lipid reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and iron accumulation were detected. Cardiac function indexes [left ventricular end-diastolic diameter (LVEDD), left ventricular end-systolic diameter (LVESD), ejection fraction (EF)%, and fractional shortening (FS)%] were measured using echocardiography. The creatine kinase muscle/brain isoenzyme (CK-MB) and CK levels in the serum were detected using an automatic biochemical analyzer. The downstream target of miR-149 was predicted, and the binding relationship between miR-149 and high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) was verified using a dual-luciferase assay. miR-149 and HMGB1 expressions were detected using RT-qPCR and Western blot. After resveratrol treatment, cardiomyocyte viability and GSH were increased, and LDH secretion, lipid ROS production, lipid peroxidation, and iron accumulation were decreased, and cardiac function and cardiomyocyte injury were improved. Resveratrol improved LPS-induced endotoxemia cardiomyocyte injury by upregulating miR-149 and inhibiting ferroptosis. Resveratrol inhibited HMGB1 expression by upregulating miR-149. HMGB1 upregulation reversed the inhibitory effect of miR-149 on LPS-induced ferroptosis in cardiomyocytes. Resveratrol upregulated miR-149 and downregulated HMGB1 to inhibit ferroptosis and improve myocardial injury in mice with LPS-induced endotoxemia. Collectively, resveratrol upregulated miR-149, downregulated HMGB1, and inhibited the ferroptosis pathway, thus improving cardiomyocyte injury in LPS-induced endotoxemia.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Sepsis is an unusual systemic reaction. Resveratrol is involved in sepsis treatment. This study explored the mechanism of resveratrol in sepsis by regulating the miR-149/HMGB1 axis.

Stilbenes: Source plants, chemistry, biosynthesis, pharmacology, application and problems related to their clinical Application-A comprehensive review

Stilbenes are some of the important phenolic compounds originating from plant families like Vitaceae, Leguminaceae, Gnetaceae, and Dipterocarpaceae. Structurally, they have a C6-C2-C6 skeleton, usually with two isomeric forms. Stilbenes are biosynthesized due to biotic and abiotic stresses such as microbial infections, high temperatures, and oxidation. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of stilbenes' botanical sources, chemistry, biosynthetic pathways, pharmacology, and clinical applications and challenges based on up-to-date data. All included studies were collected from PubMed, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, and CNKI, and the presented data from these indexed studies were analyzed and summarized. A total of 459 natural stilbene compounds from 45 plant families and 196 plant species were identified. Pharmacological studies also show that stilbenes have various activities such as anticancer, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-degenerative diseases, anti-diabetic, neuroprotective, anti-aging, and cardioprotective effects. Stilbene synthase (STS) is the key enzyme involved in stilbene biosynthetic pathways. Studies on the therapeutic application of stilbenes pinpoint that challenges such as low bioavailability and isomerization are the major bottlenecks for their development as therapeutic drugs. Although the medicinal uses of several stilbenes have been demonstrated in vivo and in vitro, studies on the development of stilbenes deserve more attention in the future.

Resveratrol inhibits inflammation after spinal cord injury via SIRT-1/NF-κB signaling pathway

Spinal cord injury (SCI) can cause severe trauma to the central nervous system. Resveratrol has been widely studied for several of its medicinal properties, including anti-inflammatory, anti-aging and anti-oxidative effects. The regulation of SIRT-1 is thought to be related to the effects of resveratrol. As a downstream component of SIRT-1, NF-κB is one of the important signaling pathways that regulate the inflammatory response. Herein, we explored how treatment with resveratrol promoted recovery of motor function after SCI by activating the SIRT-1/NF-κB signaling pathway and inhibiting inflammation in rat models. Recovery of hind limb function was observed using the Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan locomotor rating scale at different time points after SCI. Western blot analysis, immunofluorescence, Nissl staining and HE staining were utilized to observe the morphological characteristics of spinal cord tissue, as well as the expression of SIRT-1, NF-κB, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 and brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Resveratrol treatment promoted motor function recovery, increased the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and reduced loss of motor neurons and lesion size among rats after SCI. Meanwhile, inflammatory response was inhibited as the SIRT-1/NF-κB signaling pathway was modulated. These results suggest that resveratrol can help achieve neuroprotective effect by inhibiting inflammation, regulated by the SIRT-1/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Identification and validation of key long non-coding RNAs in resveratrol protect against IL-1β-treated chondrocytes via integrated bioinformatic analysis

Background

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) participate in regulation of gene transcription, but little is known about the correlation among resveratrol and lncRNAs. This study aimed to identify and validate the key lncRNAs in resveratrol protect against IL-1β-treated chondrocytes.

Methods

In this experiment, high-throughput sequencing technique was performed to identify the differentially expressed lncRNAs, miRNAs, and mRNAs between IL-1β-treated chondrocytes with or not resveratrol. Moreover, gene ontology and KEGG pathway of the differentially expressed genes were carried out by R software. Then, lncRNA-miRNA-mRNA network was constructed by Cytoscape software. Venn diagram was performed to identify the potentially target miRNAs of LINC00654. Then, real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was performed to validate the most significantly differentially expressed lncRNAs.

Results

Totally, 1016 differentially expressed lncRNAs were identified (493 downregulated) between control and resveratrol-treated chondrocytes. Totally, 75 differentially expressed miRNAs were identified (downregulated = 54, upregulated = 21). Totally, 3308 differentially expressed miRNAs were identified (downregulated = 1715, upregulated = 1593). GO (up) were as follows: skin development, response to organophosphorus. GO (down) mainly included visual perception, single fertilization, and sensory perception of smell. KEGG (up) were as follows: TNF signaling pathway and TGF-beta signaling pathway. KEGG (down) were as follows: viral protein interaction with cytokine and cytokine receptor. We identified that LINC00654 and OGFRL1 were upregulated in resveratrol-treated chondrocytes. However, miR-210-5p was downregulated in resveratrol-treated chondrocytes.

Conclusion

In sum, the present study for the first time detected the differential expressed lncRNAs involved in resveratrol-treated chondrocytes via employing bioinformatic methods.

Effects of resveratrol on female reproduction: A review

The present review summarizes the current knowledge concerning physiological effects of resveratrol (RSV) with emphasis on the RSV action on female reproductive processes. The review outlines provenance, properties, mechanisms of action, physiological and therapeutic actions of RSV on female reproduction and other physiological processes, as well as areas of possible application of R. This review is based on the search for the related full papers indexed in Medline/Pubmed, Web of Science and SCOPUS databases between the year 2000 and 2021 according to the criteria of preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses extension for scoping reviews and other related guidelines. The analysis of the available information suggests that RSV has a number of properties which enable its influence on various physiological processes including female reproduction at various regulatory levels via various extra- and intracellular signalling pathways. Despite some contradictions and limitations in the available data, they indicate applicability of both stimulatory and inhibitory effects of RSV for control and influence of various reproductive and non-reproductive processes and treatment of their disorders in phytotherapy, animal production, medicine, biotechnology and assisted reproduction. To establish the clinical efficacy of RSV, further high quality studies are needed.

Anti-Proliferative and Anti-Telomerase Effects of Blackberry Juice and Berry-Derived Polyphenols on HepG2 Liver Cancer Cells and Normal Human Blood Mononuclear Cells

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have provided strong evidence for anticancer activity of berry fruits.

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we investigated the effects of blackberry juice and three berry- polyphenolic compounds on cell proliferation and telomerase activity in human hepatoma HepG2 and normal peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs).

METHODS

The cell viability and telomerase activity were measured by MTT and TRAP assay, respectively. Berry effects on the expression of genes were determined by quantitative RT-PCR assay.

RESULTS

Blackberry, gallic acid, and resveratrol inhibited proliferation of both HepG2 and PBMC cells in a dose-dependent manner. Resveratrol was more effective than gallic acid for reducing the viability of HepG2 cells, but both showed the same level of growth inhibition in PBMC cells. Berry, resveratrol, and gallic acid significantly inhibited telomerase activity in HepG2 cells. The antiproliferative effect of berry was associated with apoptotic DNA fragmentation. Gallic acid was more effective for reducing telomerase activity than resveratrol, but anthocyanin moderately increased telomerase activity in cancer cells. Telomerase activity was induced by all three polyphenols in PBMCs. Overall, Krumanin chloride was more effective to induce telomerase than gallic acid and resveratrol in PBMC cells. There was no significant difference in hTERT, hTR, and Dnmts expressions between berry treated and the control untreated HepG2 cells. But, a significant downregulation of HDAC1 and HDAC2 and upregulation of SIRT1 were observed in berry-treated cells.

CONCLUSION

These data indicate that the berry anticancer effect is associated with antitelomerase activity and changes in HDACs expression. The data also suggest that berry antitelomerase activity is mainly related to its gallic acid and resveratrol, but not anthocyanin content.

Soy isoflavone-caused shunting of the corticosteroidogenesis pathways in andropausal subjects: Top-down impulse for the optimal supplementation design

In a series of our previous works, we revealed the beneficial effects of applied soy isoflavones (genistein or daidzein) on the wide context of corticosteroidogenesis in vivo, in a rat model of the andropause. Soy isoflavones decreased the circulating levels of pituitary adrenocorticotropic hormone, inhibited aldosterone secretion, as well as corticosterone production and secretion, but stimulated dehydroepiandrosterone secretion, all in andropausal rats. In vitro studies indicate that the mechanism underlying these hormonal changes relies on inhibition of the pituitary tyrosine kinase and adrenocortical 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase enzymes by soy isoflavones. Although the clinical studies are in their infancy, the opinion is that genistein and daidzein have therapeutic potential for the safe treatment of ageing-caused androgen deprivation and glucocorticoid excess with related metabolic/hemodynamic issues in males. Our accumulated experience and knowledge in the field of biomedical effects of plant polyphenols have provided a platform for potential recommending the agenda to organize and accelerate experimental research aimed at producing the optimal supplementation. We hypothesize that an in vivo approach should first be exploited in the sequence of investigative steps, followed by in vitro studies and synchronously conducted molecular docking analyses. In vivo research, besides establishing the margin of exposure safety or adjustment of the correct polyphenol dose, enables identification and quantification of the metabolites of applied polyphenols in the blood. Subsequent in vitro exploitation of the metabolites and related docking analyses provide clarification of the molecular mechanisms of action of applied polyphenols. Chemical modification of the polyphenol structure or coupling it with nanoparticles might be the next step in optimizing the design of supplementation. Selected, intact or chemically-modified polyphenol molecules should be included in preclinical studies on a more closely-related species, while clinical studies would finally assess the safety and effectiveness of a polyphenol-based remedial strategy. The final supplement represents a product of an appropriate technological process, conducted in accordance with the recommendations derived from the preceding research.

Resveratrol and Resveratrol-Aspirin Hybrid Compounds as Potent Intestinal Anti-Inflammatory and Anti-Tumor Drugs

Resveratrol (3,4,5-Trihydroxy-trans-stilbene) is a naturally occurring polyphenol that exhibits beneficial pleiotropic health effects. It is one of the most promising natural molecules in the prevention and treatment of chronic diseases and autoimmune disorders. One of the key limitations in the clinical use of resveratrol is its extensive metabolic processing to its glucuronides and sulfates. It has been estimated that around 75% of this polyphenol is excreted via feces and urine. To possibly alleviate the extensive metabolic processing and improve bioavailability, we have added segments of acetylsalicylic acid to resveratrol in an attempt to maintain the functional properties of both. We initially characterized resveratrol-aspirin derivatives as products that can inhibit cytochrome P450 Family 1 Subfamily A Member 1 (CYP1A1) activity, DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) activity, and cyclooxygenase (COX) activity. In this study, we provide a detailed analysis of how resveratrol and its aspirin derivatives can inhibit nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) activation, cytokine production, the growth rate of cancer cells, and in vivo alleviate intestinal inflammation and tumor growth. We identified resveratrol derivatives C3 and C11 as closely preserving resveratrol bioactivities of growth inhibition of cancer cells, inhibition of NFκB activation, activation of sirtuin, and 5’ adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activity. We speculate that the aspirin derivatives of resveratrol would be more metabolically stable, resulting in increased efficacy for treating immune disorders and as an anti-cancer agent.

Additive Effect of Resveratrol on Astrocyte Swelling Post-exposure to Ammonia, Ischemia and Trauma In Vitro

Swelling of astrocytes represents a major component of the brain edema associated with many neurological conditions, including acute hepatic encephalopathy (AHE), traumatic brain injury (TBI) and ischemia. It has previously been reported that exposure of cultured astrocytes to ammonia (a factor strongly implicated in the pathogenesis of AHE), oxygen/glucose deprivation, or to direct mechanical trauma results in an increase in cell swelling. Since dietary polyphenols have been shown to exert a protective effect against cell injury, we examined whether resveratrol (RSV, 3,5,4'-trihydroxy-trans-stilbene, a stilbenoid phenol), has a protective effect on astrocyte swelling following its exposure to ammonia, oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD), or trauma in vitro. Ammonia increased astrocyte swelling, and pre- or post-treatment of astrocytes with 10 and 25 µM RSV displayed an additive effect, while 5 µM did not prevent the effect of ammonia. However, pre-treatment of astrocytes with 25 µM RSV slightly, but significantly, reduced the trauma-induced astrocyte swelling at earlier time points (3 h), while post-treatment had no significant effect on the trauma-induced cell swelling at the 3 h time point. Instead, pre- or post-treatment of astrocytes with 25 µM RSV had an additive effect on trauma-induced astrocyte swelling. Further, pre- or post-treatment of astrocytes with 5 or 10 µM RSV had no significant effect on trauma-induced astrocyte swelling. When 5 or 10 µM RSV were added prior to, or during the process of OGD, as well as post-OGD, it caused a slight, but not statistically significant decline in cell swelling. However, when 25 µM RSV was added during the process of OGD, as well as after the cells were returned to normal condition (90 min period), such treatment showed an additive effect on the OGD-induced astrocyte swelling. Noteworthy, a higher concentration of RSV (25 µM) exhibited an additive effect on levels of phosphorylated forms of ERK1/2, and p38^MAPK, as well as an increased activity of the Na⁺-K⁺-Cl^- co-transporter-1 (NKCC1), factors known to induce astrocytes swelling, when the cells were treated with ammonia or after trauma or ischemia. Further, inhibition of ERK1/2, and p38^MAPK diminished the RSV-induced exacerbation of cell swelling post-ammonia, trauma and OGD treatment. These findings strongly suggest that treatment of cultured astrocytes with RSV enhanced the ammonia, ischemia and trauma-induced cell swelling, likely through the exacerbation of intercellular signaling kinases and ion transporters. Accordingly, caution should be exercised when using RSV for the treatment of these neurological conditions, especially when brain edema is also suspected.