Preparation and Characterization of Ginger Lipid-derived Nanoparticles for Colon-targeted siRNA Delivery

Emerging Trends in the Application of Extracellular Vesicles as Novel Oral Delivery Vehicles for Therapeutics in Inflammatory Diseases

Inflammation involves complex immune responses where cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1, and IL-6 promote vasodilation and increased vascular permeability to facilitate immune cell migration to inflammation sites. Persistent inflammation is linked to diseases like cancer, arthritis, and neurodegenerative disorders. Although oral anti-inflammatory drugs are favored for their non-invasiveness and cost-effectiveness, their efficacy is often compromised due to gastrointestinal degradation and limited bioavailability. Recent advancements highlight the potential of extracellular vesicles (EVs) as nanocarriers that enhance drug delivery by encapsulating therapeutic agents, ensuring targeted release and reduced toxicity. These EVs, derived from dietary sources and cell cultures, exhibit excellent biocompatibility and stability, presenting a novel approach in anti-inflammatory therapies. This review discusses the classification and advantages of orally administered EVs (O-EVs), their mechanism of action, and their emerging role in treating inflammatory conditions, positioning them as promising vectors in the development of innovative anti-inflammatory drug delivery systems.

Plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles: A novel nanotool for disease therapy

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles comprising bilayer phospholipid membranes and are secreted by eukaryotic cells. They are released via cellular exocytosis, contain DNA, RNA, proteins, and other substances, and participate in various cellular communications between tissues and organs. Since the discovery of exosomes in 1983, animal-derived exosomes have become a research focus for small-molecule drug delivery in biology, medicine, and other fields owing to their good biocompatibility and homing effects. Recent studies have found that plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles (PELNVs) exhibit certain biological effects, such as anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor abilities, and have minimal toxic side effects. Because they are rich in active lipid molecules with certain pharmacological effects, PELNVs could be novel carriers for drug delivery. In this review, the biological formation and effects, isolation, and extraction of PELNVs, as well as characteristics of transporting drugs as carriers are summarized to provide new ideas and methods for future research on plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles.

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles -a novel clinical anti-inflammatory drug carrier worthy of investigation

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) have shown remarkable potential as sustainable, green, and efficient drug delivery nanocarriers. As natural nanoparticles containing lipids, protein, nucleic acids and secondary metabolites, they have received widespread attention as a replacement for mammalian exosomes in recent years. In this review, the advances in isolation, identification, composition, therapeutic effect, and clinical application prospect were comprehensively reviewed, respectively. In addition, the specific modification strategies have been listed focusing on the inherent drawbacks of the raw PDEVs like low targeting efficiency and poor homogeneity. With emphasis on their biology mechanism in terms of immune regulation, regulating oxidative stress and promoting regeneration in the anti-inflammatory field and application value demonstrated by citing some typical examples, this review about PDEVs would provide a broad and fundamental vision for the in-depth exploration and development of plant-derived extracellular vesicles in the in-vivo anti-inflammation and even other biomedical applications.

From the updated landscape of the emerging biologics for IBDs treatment to the new delivery systems

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) treatments have shifted from small-molecular therapeutics to the oncoming biologics. The first-line biologics against the moderate-to-severe IBDs are mainly involved in antibodies against integrins, cytokines and cell adhesion molecules. Besides, other biologics including growth factors, antioxidative enzyme, anti-inflammatory peptides, nucleic acids, stem cells and probiotics have also been explored at preclinical or clinical studies. Biologics with variety of origins have their unique potentials in attenuating immune inflammation or gut mucosa healing. Great advances in use of biologics for IBDs treatments have been archived in recent years. But delivering issues for biologic have also been confronted due to their liable nature. In this review, we will focus on biologics for IBDs treatments in the recent publications; summarize the current landscapes of biologics and their promise to control disease progress. Alternatively, the confronted challenges for delivering biologics will also be analyzed. To combat these drawbacks, some new delivering strategies are provided: firstly, designing the functional materials with high affinity toward biologics; secondly, the delivering vehicle systems to encapsulate the liable biologics; thirdly, the topical adhering delivery systems as enema. To our knowledge, this review is the first study to summarize the updated usage of the oncoming biologics for IBDs, their confronted challenges in term of delivery and the potential combating strategies.

Ginger: a representative material of herb-derived exosome-like nanoparticles

Edible plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PELNs) provide numerous benefits, including high yield, low cost, ethical compatibility, and multiple health benefits, which enable them to address technical constraints associated with mammalian nanoparticles. Herbs, known for their abundant bioactive components, are considered the primary source of natural medicines within the plant kingdom. Recently, a number of herbaceous sources have been investigated for the isolation and functionality of exosome-like nanoparticles (ELNs). However, they are commonly referred to as PELNs, and their distinct pharmacological properties are overlooked. In this review, these herb-derived ELNs are designated as HELNs, a novel herbal product that may also exhibit superior pharmacological activity compared to other types of PELNs. Among the documented HELNs, ginger-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (GELNs) are the most extensively studied. This review employs GELNs as an exemplar to delineate the process of extraction and purification, together with their physical and biochemical characteristics and therapeutic potential. The aim of this review is to promote the development and application of HELNs, and future research is encouraged to uncover their additional properties, extending beyond those of GELNs.

Bioinspired Lipid Nanocarriers for RNA Delivery

RNA therapy is a disruptive technology comprising a rapidly expanding category of drugs. Further translation of RNA therapies to the clinic will improve the treatment of many diseases and help enable personalized medicine. However, in vivo delivery of RNA remains challenging due to the lack of appropriate delivery tools. Current state-of-the-art carriers such as ionizable lipid nanoparticles still face significant challenges, including frequent localization to clearance-associated organs and limited (1-2%) endosomal escape. Thus, delivery vehicles must be improved to further unlock the full potential of RNA therapeutics. An emerging strategy is to modify existing or new lipid nanocarriers by incorporating bioinspired design principles. This method generally aims to improve tissue targeting, cellular uptake, and endosomal escape, addressing some of the critical issues facing the field. In this review, we introduce the different strategies for creating bioinspired lipid-based RNA carriers and discuss the potential implications of each strategy based on reported findings. These strategies include incorporating naturally derived lipids into existing nanocarriers and mimicking bioderived molecules, viruses, and exosomes. We evaluate each strategy based on the critical factors required for delivery vehicles to succeed. Finally, we point to areas of research that should be furthered to enable the more successful rational design of lipid nanocarriers for RNA delivery.

Medicinal plant-based drug delivery system for inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic recurrent intestinal disease. The incidence rate of IBD is increasing year by year, which seriously endangers human health worldwide. More and more studies have shown that medicinal plants or their main phytochemicals have great potential in the treatment of intestinal diseases. However, the disadvantages of low oral absorption rate, low biological distribution and low systemic bioavailability limit their clinical application to a certain extent. In recent years, the application of nanotechnology has made it possible to treat IBD. Nanoparticles (NPs) drug delivery system has attracted special attention in the treatment of IBD due to its small size, low immunogenicity, surface modification diversity, targeting and other advantages. Synthetic nanoparticles and extracellular vehicles (EVs) can deliver drug components to colon, and play a role in anti-inflammation, regulation of oxidative stress, improvement of intestinal flora, etc. In addition, some medicinal plants can secrete EVs by themselves, and carry biological molecules with therapeutic effects to act on the intestine. Some clinical trials to evaluate the safety, tolerance, toxicity and effectiveness of EVs-loaded drugs in IBD are also progressing steadily. This review introduces that synthetic nanoparticles and medicinal plants derived EVs can play an important role in the treatment of IBD by carrying the effective active phytochemicals of medicinal plants, and discuss the limitations of current research and future research needs, providing a scientific and reliable basis and perspective for further clinical application and promotion.

Oral delivery of IL-22 mRNA-loaded lipid nanoparticles targeting the injured intestinal mucosa: A novel therapeutic solution to treat ulcerative colitis

Oral mRNA delivery is a promising yet understudied approach for treating inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Inspired by the colon-targeting ability of ginger-derived nanoparticles (GDNPs), we reversely engineered lipid nanoparticles that comprise the three major lipids identified in GDNPs. When mixed at the ratio found in GDNPs, the selected lipids (phosphatidic acid, monogalactosyldiacylglycerol, and digalactosyldiacylglycerol; 5:2:3) self-assembled into new lipid nanoparticles (nLNPs) in phosphate-buffered saline. We encapsulated IL-22-mRNA within the nLNPs, as enhanced IL-22 expression in the colon is known to have potent anti-inflammatory efficacy against ulcerative colitis (UC). The IL-22 mRNA-loaded nLNPs (IL-22/nLNPs) were found to be about 200 nm in diameter and have a zeta potential of -18 mV. Oral delivery of IL-22/nLNPs elevated the protein expression level of IL-22 in the colonic mucosa of mice. In a mouse model of acute colitis, mice fed with IL-22/nLNPs experienced an accelerated healing process, as indicated by the recovery of more body weight and colon length as well as reduction of the histological index, colonic MPO activity, fecal lipocalin concentration, and mRNA expression levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β). Our results suggest that our reversely engineered nLNPs is an excellent mRNA delivery platform for treating ulcerative colitis.

MicroRNA loaded edible nanoparticles: an emerging personalized therapeutic approach for the treatment of obesity and metabolic disorders

Obesity is a metabolic chronic disease whose prevalence is strongly growing in the last years, reaching pandemic proportions. Nowadays weight loss, achieved through lifestyle changes, is the first line therapeutic objective, although great inter-individual variabilities influence response to treatment, suggesting the involvement of epigenetic factors. In this contest, there is increasing recognition of the role of small RNA molecules, particularly microRNAs in the epigenetic regulation of genes involved in adipose tissue and glucose metabolism and several microRNAs have been found to be dysregulated in obesity and metabolic diseases. The development of novel personalized therapeutic strategies using microRNAs bears promise. However, the application of naked microRNAs has been hampered by their low specificity and sensitivity. In a recent issue of Theranostics, Kumar et al. explored the possibility of microRNA delivery through ginger-derived nanoparticles (GDNPs) as an alternative therapeutic approach for obesity treatment. The results reported by Kumar et al., addressing non-coding RNAs and edible plant derived nanoparticles, open new perspectives for the application of this innovative and safe delivery system in the clinical practice for the treatment of obesity and other metabolic disorders.

Oral Administration of Ginger-Derived Lipid Nanoparticles and Dmt1 siRNA Potentiates the Effect of Dietary Iron Restriction and Mitigates Pre-Existing Iron Overload in Hamp KO Mice

Intestinal iron transport requires an iron importer (Dmt1) and an iron exporter (Fpn1). The hormone hepcidin regulates iron absorption by modulating Fpn1 protein levels on the basolateral surface of duodenal enterocytes. In the genetic, iron-loading disorder hereditary hemochromatosis (HH), hepcidin production is low and Fpn1 protein expression is elevated. High Fpn1-mediated iron export depletes intracellular iron, causing a paradoxical increase in Dmt1-mediated iron import. Increased activity of both transporters causes excessive iron absorption, thus initiating body iron loading. Logically then, silencing of intestinal Dmt1 or Fpn1 could be an effective therapeutic intervention in HH. It was previously established that Dmt1 knock down prevented iron-loading in weanling Hamp (encoding hepcidin) KO mice (modeling type 2B HH). Here, we tested the hypothesis that Dmt1 silencing combined with dietary iron restriction (which may be recommended for HH patients) will mitigate iron loading once already established. Accordingly, adult Hamp KO mice were switched to a low-iron (LFe) diet and (non-toxic) folic acid-coupled, ginger nanoparticle-derived lipid vectors (FA-GDLVs) were used to deliver negative-control (NC) or Dmt1 siRNA by oral, intragastric gavage daily for 21 days. The LFe diet reduced body iron burden, and experimental interventions potentiated iron losses. For example, Dmt1 siRNA treatment suppressed duodenal Dmt1 mRNA expression (by ~50%) and reduced serum and liver non-heme iron levels (by ~60% and >85%, respectively). Interestingly, some iron-related parameters were repressed similarly by FA-GDLVs carrying either siRNA, including 59Fe (as FeCl3) absorption (~20% lower), pancreatic non-heme iron (reduced by ~65%), and serum ferritin (decreased 40-50%). Ginger may thus contain bioactive lipids that also influence iron homeostasis. In conclusion, the combinatorial approach of FA-GDLV and Dmt1 siRNA treatment, with dietary iron restriction, mitigated pre-existing iron overload in a murine model of HH.

Atomic Force Microscopy to Characterize Ginger Lipid-Derived Nanoparticles (GLDNP)

We have demonstrated that a specific population of ginger-derived nanoparticles (GDNP-2) could effectively target the colon, reduce colitis, and alleviate colitis-associated colon cancer. Naturally occurring GDNP-2 contains complex bioactive components, including lipids, proteins, miRNAs, and ginger secondary metabolites (gingerols and shogaols). To construct a nanocarrier that is more clearly defined than GDNP-2, we isolated lipids from GDNP-2 and demonstrated that they could self-assemble into ginger lipid-derived nanoparticles (GLDNP) in an aqueous solution. GLDNP can be used as a nanocarrier to deliver drug candidates such as 6-shogaol or its metabolites (M2 and M13) to the colon. To characterize the nanostructure of GLDNP, our lab extensively used atomic force microscopy (AFM) technique as a tool for visualizing the morphology of the drug-loaded GLDNP. Herein, we provide a detailed protocol for demonstrating such a process.