Personality correlates related to tobacco abstinence following treatment

Dopamine Receptor DRD2 Gene rs1076560, Personality Traits and Anxiety in the Polysubstance Use Disorder

Development of an addiction is conditioned by many factors. The dopaminergic system has been shown to be the key element in this process. In this paper, we analyzed the influence of dopamine receptor 2 polymorphism rs1076560 in two groups—polysubstance-dependent male patients (n = 299) and the controls matched for age (n = 301). In both groups, we applied the same questionnaires for testing—Mini-international neuropsychiatric interview, the NEO Five-Factor Inventory, and the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory. The real-time PCR method was used for genotyping. When we compared the controls with the case group subjects, we observed significantly higher scores in the second group on both the state and trait scales of anxiety, as well as on the Neuroticism and Openness scales of the NEO-FFI; and lower scores on the scales of Extraversion and Agreeability of the NEO-FFI. The model 2 × 3 factorial ANOVA of the addicted subjects and controls was performed, and the DRD2 rs1076560 variant interaction was found for the anxiety state and trait scales, and for the NEO-FFI Neuroticism scale. The observed associations allow noticing that analysis of psychological factors in combination with genetic data opens new possibilities in addiction research.

The Ankyrin Repeat and Kinase Domain Containing 1 Gene Polymorphism (ANKK1 Taq1A) and Personality Traits in Addicted Subjects

The Taq1A polymorphism located in the ANKK1 gene is one of the most widely studied polymorphisms in regards to the genetics of behavior and addiction. The aim of our study was to analyze this polymorphism with regard to personality characteristics and anxiety measured by means of the Personality Inventory—(NEO Five-Factor Inventory—NEO—FFI) and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) in polysubstance addicted subjects. The study group consisted of 600 male volunteers, including 299 addicted subjects and 301 controls. Psychiatrists recruited members for both groups. Addiction was diagnosed in the case group. In the control group mental illness was excluded. The same psychometric test and genotyping using the real-time PCR (polymerase chain reaction) method was performed for both groups. The results were investigated by means of multivariate analysis of the main effects Multi-factor ANOVA. Significantly higher scores on the scale of STAI state and Neuroticism and Openness traits, as well as lower scores on the scales of Extraversion, Agreeability, and Conscientiousness, were found in the case group subjects, compared to the controls. Differences in frequency of genotypes and alleles of Taq1A polymorphism between the studied groups were not found. Multi-factor ANOVA of addicted subjects and control subjects and the ANKK1 Taq1A variant interaction approximated the statistical significance for the STAI state. The main effects ANOVA of both subjects’ groups were found for the STAI state and trait, the Neuroticism scale, the Extraversion scale, and the Agreeability scale. The ANKK1 Taq1A main effects approximated the statistical significance of the STAI trait. Our study shows not only differences in personality traits between addicted and non-addicted subjects, but also the possible impact of ANKK1 on given traits and on addiction itself.

Effect of type D personality on smoking status and their combined impact on outcome after acute myocardial infarction

BACKGROUND

Smoking cessation is correlated with several psychological, social, biological, and pharmacological aspects. The combined tendency to experience negative emotions and to inhibit the expression of these emotions is indicated as "type D personality," an independent risk marker for clinical outcome in cardiac disease. Despite this effect of type D personality on cardiovascular disease, it is still unclear whether this personality trait may influence smoking cessation after a myocardial infarction.

HYPOTHESIS

we hypothesized that there is a relationship between type D personality and smoking persistence in acute coronary syndrome patients, and this association may predict a worse long-term prognosis.

METHODS

The study enrolled 231 patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction, treated with primary percutaneous coronary intervention. Type D scale 14 (ds 14) was administered upon admission to the hospital.

RESULTS

After controlling for demographic and clinical confounders, non-type D patients reported statistically significant higher frequencies of smoking cessation when compared with the type D group. In addition, the presence of this psychological factor anticipates significantly the onset of smoking during adolescence. Furthermore, current type D smokers had a higher incidence of cardiovascular events during long-term follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

Type D personality and smoking status increase the risk of cardiac events. An emotionally stressed personality and persistence of smoking after the first cardiac event, and mostly their mutual influence, indicate a population at high cardiovascular risk.

Moderators of smoking cessation outcomes in a randomized-controlled trial of varenicline versus placebo

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVE

Varenicline has gained a reputation as the optimal intervention for treatment resistant smokers, yet more than half of those who try it do not succeed. To better understand individual differences in the effectiveness of varenicline, this study evaluates the effectiveness of varenicline for smoking cessation in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial and examines the influence of psychological factors on treatment outcome.

METHOD

Two hundred five cigarette smokers interested in quitting were randomly assigned to 12 weeks of varenicline or placebo. Outcomes examined were CO-confirmed continuous abstinence for the past month, average number of cigarettes smoked per day, and 7-day point prevalence.

RESULTS

Varenicline-treated participants were more likely than placebo to achieve continuous abstinence at the end of treatment (OR = 3.29; RR = 2.62), and 7-day point prevalence rates showed an effect of medication at each time point. Participants in both groups significantly reduced their smoking during the course of treatment and follow-up, and the medication by visit interaction was significant in the expected direction. Impulsivity and personality style emerged as moderators of the relationship between medication condition and treatment outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

In addition to replicating efficacy results for varenicline versus placebo, the present study shows that the efficacy of pharmacotherapy is influenced by psychological factors. In an era where pharmacotherapy is often perceived as the "silver bullet," we are reminded that smoking cessation is a dynamic process and intervention must be adaptable to address individual differences.

Smoking Status and the Five-Factor Model of Personality: Results of a Cross-Sectional Study Conducted in Poland

Tobacco smoking is the single most important modifiable factor in increased morbidity and premature mortality. Numerous factors—including genetics, personality, and environment—affect the development and persistence of tobacco addiction, and knowledge regarding these factors could improve smoking cessation rates. This study compared personality traits between never, former, and current smokers, using the Five-Factor Model of Personality in a country with a turbulent smoking reduction process.: In this cross-sectional study, 909 Polish adults completed the Revised Neuroticism-Extraversion-Openness Personality Inventory. Our results showed that current smokers’ scores for extraversion, one of the five global dimensions of personality, were higher relative to never smokers. Neuroticism, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness did not differ significantly according to smoking status. Facet analysis, which described each dimension in detail, showed that current smokers’ activity and excitement seeking (facets of extraversion) scores were higher relative to those of never and former smokers. In turn, current smokers’ dutifulness and deliberation (facets of conscientiousness) scores were lower than those found in former and never smokers. Never smokers scored the highest in self-consciousness (a facet of neuroticism) and compliance (a component of agreeableness). The study conducted among Polish individuals showed variation in personality traits according to their smoking status; however, this variation differed from that reported in countries in which efforts to reduce smoking had begun earlier relative to Poland. Knowledge regarding personality traits could be useful in designing smoking prevention and cessation programs tailored to individuals’ needs.

The influence of personality traits on smokers' affect, withdrawal and cessation intervention outcome

The personality traits of harm avoidance (HA), novelty seeking (NS), and reward dependence (RD), as measured by the Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire (TPQ), have been linked to smoking behavior. The extent to which these traits are associated with smoking withdrawal and cessation outcome is unclear. We sought to address this question among 131 treatment-seeking smokers who were randomly assigned to either a smoking cessation treatment (four 30-min behavioral counseling sessions) or a control condition. We found that HA was positively associated with baseline depressive symptoms, baseline negative affect, and post-quit withdrawal, and negatively associated with positive affect at both baseline and post-quit. Additionally, we found that smokers with higher HA scores were more likely to be abstinent. NS was negatively associated with post-quit positive affect and positively associated with post-quit negative affect and withdrawal. RD was not found to be related to any outcome measures. Our findings suggest that, despite experiencing greater baseline and post-quit negative affect, smokers higher in trait harm avoidance are more likely to quit smoking. The treatment and theoretical ramifications of these findings are discussed.

Personality and smoking: individual-participant meta-analysis of nine cohort studies

AIMS

To investigate cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between personality and smoking, and test whether socio-demographic factors modify these associations.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional and longitudinal individual-participant meta-analysis.

SETTING

Nine cohort studies from Australia, Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 79 757 men and women (mean age = 50.8 years).

MEASUREMENTS

Personality traits of the five-factor model (extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness and openness to experience) were used as exposures. Outcomes were current smoking status (current smoker, ex-smoker and never smoker), smoking initiation, smoking relapse and smoking cessation. Associations between personality and smoking were modelled using logistic and multinomial logistic regression, and study-specific findings were combined using random-effect meta-analysis.

FINDINGS

Current smoking was associated with higher extraversion [odds ratio per 1 standard deviation increase in the score: 1.16; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.08-1.24], higher neuroticism (1.19; 95% CI = 1.13-1.26) and lower conscientiousness (95% CI = 0.88; 0.83-0.94). Among non-smokers, smoking initiation during the follow-up period was predicted prospectively by higher extraversion (1.22; 95% CI = 1.04-1.43) and lower conscientiousness (0.80; 95% CI = 0.68-0.93), whereas higher neuroticism (1.16; 95% CI = 1.04-1.30) predicted smoking relapse among ex-smokers. Among smokers, smoking cessation was negatively associated with neuroticism (0.91; 95% CI = 0.87-0.96). Socio-demographic variables did not appear to modify the associations between personality and smoking.

CONCLUSIONS

Adult smokers have higher extraversion, higher neuroticism and lower conscientiousness personality scores than non-smokers. Initiation into smoking is associated positively with higher extraversion and lower conscientiousness, while relapse to smoking among ex-smokers is associated with higher neuroticism.

The association of affective temperaments with smoking initiation and maintenance in adult primary care patients

BACKGROUND

Smoking behaviour and its course is influenced by personality factors. Affective temperaments could allow a more specific framework of the role trait affectivity plays in this seriously harmful health-behaviour. The aim of our study was to investigate if such an association exists in an ageing population with a special emphasis on gender differences.

METHODS

459 primary care patients completed the TEMPS-A, Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAM-A). Subjects were characterized according to their smoking behaviour as current, former or never smokers. Univariate analysis ANOVA and logistic regression were performed to analyse differences in the three smoking subgroups to predict smoking initiation and maintenance.

RESULTS

Current smokers were younger and less educated than former or never smokers. Males were more likely to try tobacco during their lifetime and were more successful in cessation. Depressive, cyclothymic and irritable temperament scores showed significant differences between the three smoking subgroups. Irritable temperament was a predictor of smoking initiation in females whereas depressive temperament predicted smoking maintenance in males with a small, opposite effect of HAM-A scores independent of age, education, lifetime depression and BDI scores. Whereas smoking initiation was exclusively predicted by a higher BDI score in males, smoking maintenance was predicted by younger age and lower education in females.

LIMITATIONS

The cross-sectional nature of the study design may lead to selective survival bias and hinder drawing causal relationships.

CONCLUSIONS

Affective temperaments contribute to smoking initiation and maintenance independently of age, education, and depression. The significant contribution of depressive temperament in males and irritable temperament in females may highlight the role of gender-discordant temperaments in vulnerable subgroups.

A cognitive behavioral smoking abstinence intervention for adults with chronic pain: a randomized controlled pilot trial

Current evidence suggests it may be difficult for patients with chronic pain to quit smoking and, based on previous formative work, a 7-session individual and group-based cognitive behavioral (CB) intervention was developed. The primary aim of this randomized controlled pilot trial was to test the hypothesis that abstinence at month 6 would be greater among patients with chronic pain who received the CB intervention compared to a control condition. Upon admission to a 3-week interdisciplinary pain treatment (IPT) program, patients were randomized to receive the CB intervention (n=30) or the control condition (n=30). The 7-day point prevalence of self-reported smoking status was assessed at week 3 (upon completion of the 3-week IPT program) and at month 6 in an intent-to-treat analysis. At week 3, 30% (n=9) of patients in the CB condition were abstinent from smoking compared to 10% (n=3) in the control group (P=.104). At month 6, 20% (n=6) of patients who received the CB intervention were abstinent compared to none in the control group (P=.024). At week 3, a significant group by time interaction effect was found where the CB patients experienced greater improvements in self-efficacy from baseline compared to the control group (P=.002). A greater proportion of patients randomized to the CB group completed the IPT program (P=.052). The findings of this pilot trial suggest that integration of a CB-based smoking abstinence intervention into ongoing pain therapy may be an effective treatment for smokers with chronic pain.

Changes in prevalence of depression and anxiety following smoking cessation: results from an international cohort study (ATTEMPT)

BACKGROUND

Smoking cessation improves physical health but it has been suggested that in vulnerable individuals it may worsen mental health. This study aimed to identify the short- and longer-term effects of stopping smoking on depression and anxiety in the general population and in those with a history of these disorders.

METHOD

Sociodemographic and smoking characteristics, and mental and physical health were assessed using established measures in the ATTEMPT cohort, an international longitudinal study of smokers (n = 3645). Smokers who had stopped for at least 3 months or less than 3 months at the 12-month follow-up were compared with current smokers (n = 1640).

RESULTS

At follow-up, 9.7% [95% confidence interval (CI) 8.3-11.2] of smokers had stopped for less than 3 months and 7.5% (95% CI 6.3-8.9) for at least 3 months. Compared with current smokers, prevalence of depression prescriptions obtained in the last 2 weeks was lower for those who had stopped for less than 3 months [odds ratio (OR) 0.37, 95% CI 0.14-0.96] or at least 3 months (OR 0.25, 95% CI 0.06-0.94) after adjusting for baseline prescription levels and confounding variables. Adjusted prevalence of recent depression symptoms was also lower for ex-smokers who had stopped for less than 3 months (OR 0.34, 95% CI 0.15-0.78) or at least 3 months (OR 0.24, 95% CI 0.09-0.67) than among continuing smokers. There was no change in anxiety measures in the general population or any increase in anxiety or depression symptoms in ex-smokers with a past history of these conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

Smoking cessation does not appear to be associated with an increase in anxiety or depression and may lead to a reduced incidence of depression.

Gender differences in personality patterns and smoking status after a smoking cessation treatment

BACKGROUND

The lack of conclusive results and the scarce use of the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-III (MCMI-III) in the study of the relationship between smoking and personality are the reasons that motivated the study reported here. The aim of the present study was to analyze the influence of personality patterns, assessed with the MCMI-III, and of nicotine dependence on treatment outcomes at the end of the treatment and at 12 months follow-up in men and women smokers receiving cognitive-behavioral treatment for smoking cessation.

METHODS

The sample was made up of 288 smokers who received cognitive-behavioral treatment for smoking cessation. Personality patterns were assessed with the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-III (MCMI-III). Abstinence at the end of the treatment and at 12-month follow-up was validated with the test for carbon monoxide in expired air.

RESULTS

The results showed significant differences by personality patterns that predict nicotine dependence (Narcissistic and Antisocial in men and Schizoid in women). At the end of the treatment it is more likely that quit smoking males with a Compulsive pattern and less likely in those scoring high in Depressive, Antisocial, Sadistic, Negativistic, Masochistic, Schizotypal and Borderline. In women, it is less likely that quit smoking those with the Schizoid pattern. At 12 months follow-up it is more likely that continue abstinent those males with a high score in the Compulsive pattern. Furthermore, nicotine dependence was an important variable for predicting outcome at the end of the treatment and smoking status at 12 months follow-up in both men and women.

CONCLUSIONS

We found substantial differences by gender in some personality patterns in a sample of smokers who received cognitive-behavioral treatment for smoking cessation. We should consider the existence of different personality patterns in men and women who seek treatment for smoking cessation.

Psychosocial factors and health behavior among Korean adults: a cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVE

This study was an attempt to identify associations between health behavior, such as smoking, alcohol consumption, healthy diet, and physical activity, and psychosocial factors.

METHODS

This cross- sectional study was conducted among 1,500 participants aged between 30 and 69 years, selected from a population-based database in October 2009 through multiple-stratified random sampling. Information was collected about the participants' smoking and drinking habits, dietary behavior, level of physical activity, stress, coping strategies, impulsiveness, personality, social support, sense of coherence, self-efficacy, health communication, and sociodemographics.

RESULTS

Agreeableness, as a personality trait, was negatively associated with smoking and a healthy diet, while extraversion was positively associated with drinking. The tendency to consume a healthy diet decreased in individuals with perceived higher stress, whereas it increased in individuals who had access to greater social support. Self-efficacy was found to be a strong predictor of all health behaviors. Provider-patient communication and physical environment were important factors in promoting positive healthy behavior, such as consumption of a healthy diet and taking regular exercise.

CONCLUSIONS

Psychosocial factors influence individuals' smoking and drinking habits, dietary intake, and exercise patterns.

Type D personality is associated with impaired psychological status and unhealthy lifestyle in Icelandic cardiac patients: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Type D (distressed) personality has been associated with adverse cardiac prognosis and poor emotional well-being in cardiac patients, but it is still unclear what mechanisms link Type D personality with poor clinical outcomes in cardiac patients. In the present cohort of Icelandic cardiac patients, we examined potential pathways that may explain this relationship. The objectives were to examine 1) the association between Type D personality and impaired psychological status, and to explore whether this association is independent of disease severity; and 2) the association between Type D personality and an unhealthy lifestyle.

METHODS

A sample of 268 Icelandic coronary angiography patients (74% males (N = 199); mean age 62.9 years (SD 10.5), range 28-85 years) completed the Type D Scale (DS14), Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), and Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) at hospitalization. Health-related behaviors were assessed 4 months following angiography. Clinical data were collected from medical files.

RESULTS

Type D personality was associated with an increased risk of anxiety (OR 2.97, 95% CI:1.55-5.69), depression (OR 4.01, 95% CI:1.42-11.29), and stress (OR 5.99, 95% CI:3.08-11.63), independent of demographic variables and disease severity. Furthermore, fish consumption was lower among Type Ds, as 21% of Type Ds versus 5% of non-Type Ds consumed fish < 1 a week (p < 0.001). Type D patients were also more likely to smoke at follow-up (22% versus 10%, p = 0.024) and to use antidepressants (17% versus 9%, p = 0.049) and sleeping pills (49% versus 33%, p = 0.019) compared to non-Type Ds. Type D personality was not associated with other health-related behaviors, aside from trends towards less fruit and vegetable consumption, and more weight gain.

CONCLUSION

Type D personality was associated with psychological distress and an unhealthy lifestyle in Icelandic cardiac patients. Future studies should further investigate the association between Type D personality and health-related behaviors.

The alternative five-factor model of personality, nicotine dependence and relapse after treatment for smoking cessation

Personality is one of several factors that have been related to the initiation, maintenance and cessation of smoking. This paper aims to analyze the relationship between the alternative five-factor model of personality (AFFM), nicotine dependence (ND), nicotine use (NU) and cessation after twelve months of a cognitive-behavioral therapy combined with medication. In this prospective study, a sample of 103 smokers who were taking part in a workplace smoking cessation intervention, answered the Zuckerman-Kuhlman Personality Questionnaire. ND and NU were measured with the Fagerström Test for the Nicotine Dependence (FTND) and the number of cigarettes smoked per day (CPD), respectively. Tobacco cessation was self-reported at twelve months follow-up and biologically confirmed. Results varied according to gender. In men, low scores on Sociability predicted high ND and large number of CPD. In addition, low scores on Sensation Seeking and high scores on Impulsivity predicted also a high smoking rate at baseline. No personality traits were found to explain ND in women, but high Impulsivity-Sensation Seeking and General Activity predicted high CPD. Predictors of cessation also differed by gender. Apart from FTND level, high levels on Impulsivity predicted relapse in males. In women, high levels on Sociability predicted relapse. This model correctly classified two thirds of abstainers and relapsers for men and three fourths for women at 12months. Furthermore an interaction between personality and gender was observed. The AFFM appears to have a substantial power for predicting cessation. Personality assessment when beginning treatment for smoking cessation could allow incorporating strategies to improve outcomes.

The five factor model of personality applied to adults who stutter

Previous research has not explored the Five Factor Model of personality among adults who stutter. Therefore, the present study investigated the five personality domains of Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness, as measured by the NEO Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI), in a sample of 93 adults seeking speech treatment for stuttering, and compared these scores with normative data from an Australian and a United States sample. Results revealed that NEO-FFI scores for the stuttering group were within the 'average' range for all five personality domains. However, adults who stutter were characterized by significantly higher Neuroticism, and significantly lower Agreeableness and Conscientiousness, than normative samples. No significant differences were found between groups on the dimensions of Extraversion and Openness. These results are discussed with reference to the relationship between personality factors among adults who stutter, their directionality, and implications for predicting treatment outcome.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

The reader will be able to: (1) describe the Five Factor Model of personality, including the NEO-FFI personality domains of Extraversion, Neuroticism, Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness, and (2) discuss differences in NEO-FFI domain scores between adults who stutter and normative samples, and (3) understand the clinical implications of personality profiles in terms of treatment process and outcome for adults who stutter.

Education and smoking: confounding or effect modification by phenotypic personality traits?

BACKGROUND

Little is known about whether educational gradients in smoking patterns can be explained by financial measures of socioeconomic status (SES) and/or personality traits.

PURPOSE

To assess whether the relationship of education to (1) never smoking and (2) having quit smoking would be confounded by financial measures of SES or by personality; whether lower Neuroticism and higher Conscientiousness would be associated with having abstained from or quit smoking; and whether education effects were modified by personality.

METHOD

Using data from the Midlife Development in the US National Survey, 2,429 individuals were classified as current (n = 695), former (n = 999), or never (n = 735) smokers. Multinomial logistic regressions examined study questions.

RESULTS

Greater education was strongly associated with both never and former smoking, with no confounding by financial status and personality. Never smoking was associated with lower Openness and higher Conscientiousness, while have quit was associated with higher Neuroticism. Education interacted additively with Conscientiousness to increase and with Openness to decrease the probability of never smoking.

CONCLUSIONS

Education and personality should be considered unconfounded smoking risks in epidemiologic and clinical studies. Educational associations with smoking may vary by personality dispositions, and prevention and intervention programs should consider both sets of factors.

Nicotine dependence, psychological distress and personality traits as possible predictors of smoking cessation. Results of a double-blind study with nicotine patch

AIM

Nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) is an effective treatment for smokers who want to quit, however, the rates of successful quitting can be improved even more. In this context, nicotine dependence (assessed via the Fagerström Tolerance Questionnaire, FTQ), psychological distress (measured via the Symptom Rating Test, SRT), and personality traits (evaluated via the Adult Eysenck Personality Inventory, AEPI) were evaluated as possible predictors of smoking cessation.

RESULTS

A total of 297 cigarette smokers were followed for one year as part of a NRT double-blind, parallel group, randomized trial. Baseline nicotine dependence (weeks 12 and 26: p<0.05), AEPI neuroticism (weeks 12 and 52: p<0.05), and AEPI psychoticism (weeks 12 and 52: p<0.05) scores significantly influenced the outcome of smoking cessation during one-year of follow-up. An increase in psychological distress during follow-up was associated with a lower probability of quitting smoking (p=0.000).

CONCLUSIONS

Nicotine dependence, neuroticism, psychoticism and, over time, psychological distress were the main factors influencing the long-term outcome (i.e., up to 12 months) of smoking cessation under NRT.

Five-Factor Model personality profiles of drug users

BACKGROUND

Personality traits are considered risk factors for drug use, and, in turn, the psychoactive substances impact individuals' traits. Furthermore, there is increasing interest in developing treatment approaches that match an individual's personality profile. To advance our knowledge of the role of individual differences in drug use, the present study compares the personality profile of tobacco, marijuana, cocaine, and heroin users and non-users using the wide spectrum Five-Factor Model (FFM) of personality in a diverse community sample.

METHOD

Participants (N = 1,102; mean age = 57) were part of the Epidemiologic Catchment Area (ECA) program in Baltimore, MD, USA. The sample was drawn from a community with a wide range of socio-economic conditions. Personality traits were assessed with the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R), and psychoactive substance use was assessed with systematic interview.

RESULTS

Compared to never smokers, current cigarette smokers score lower on Conscientiousness and higher on Neuroticism. Similar, but more extreme, is the profile of cocaine/heroin users, which score very high on Neuroticism, especially Vulnerability, and very low on Conscientiousness, particularly Competence, Achievement-Striving, and Deliberation. By contrast, marijuana users score high on Openness to Experience, average on Neuroticism, but low on Agreeableness and Conscientiousness.

CONCLUSION

In addition to confirming high levels of negative affect and impulsive traits, this study highlights the links between drug use and low Conscientiousness. These links provide insight into the etiology of drug use and have implications for public health interventions.

The five-factor model of personality and smoking: a meta-analysis

This article describes a meta-analysis of the relationship between the Five-Factor Model of personality and smoking. The results, based on nine studies and a total of 4730 participants, show that smoking was associated with the following five-factor traits: low conscientiousness, low agreeableness, and high neuroticism. Smokers outside Canada and the United States had significantly higher extraversion than nonsmokers, while extraversion was not significantly related to smoking in Canada and the United States. The results, which for the first time quantified precisely through meta-analysis the association between the five-factor model of personality and smoking, provide support for the relevance of the Five-Factor Model to an important behavior and for the trait element of Gilbert's (1995) Situation-Trait-Adaptation-Response model of smoking. The results also suggest possible avenues for smoking prevention and treatment and for further smoking research.