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Tørmoen AJ, Myhre MØ, Kildahl AT, Walby FA, Rossow I. A nationwide study on time spent on social media and self-harm among adolescents. Sci Rep 2023; 13:19111. [PMID: 37925469 PMCID: PMC10625526 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-46370-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 11/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Self-harm among adolescents has increased in many countries, but few studies have examined possible explanations. One explanation could be the changes in the way adolescents socialize and use of social media. We explored the relationship between past year self-harm and time spent on social media, employing data from a nationwide cross-sectional survey among students in grades 8 through 11 in Norway (N = 37,268). The association was estimated in logistic regression models and we adjusted for identified confounders and stratified on gender, age group and depressive symptoms. A total of 16.1% of the study population reported to have self-harmed in the past year. This proportion was elevated among those spending more than 3 h daily on social media (unadjusted OR = 2.74 (CI 2.58.-2.90)). Adjustment for confounders modified the association (OR = 1.49 (CI 1.39-1.60)). In stratified analyses, adjusted OR did not differ significantly by gender or age The association between time spent on social media and self-harm was weaker among adolescents with severe depressive symptoms (adjusted OR = 1.38 (CI 1.22-1.55)), than among those with mild or no symptoms (adjusted OR = 1.70 (CI 1.56-1.86)). Risk of self-harm was elevated among those who spent 3 or more hours daily on social media, also after controlling for other factors. Further studies are needed to explore the nature and underlying mechanisms of this association. Strengthening the evidence will help informing the development of adequate measures to prevent self-harm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Johanna Tørmoen
- National Centre for Suicide Research and Prevention, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Martin Øverlien Myhre
- National Centre for Suicide Research and Prevention, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Anine Therese Kildahl
- National Centre for Suicide Research and Prevention, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Fredrik Andreas Walby
- National Centre for Suicide Research and Prevention, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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Robinson J, Thorn P, McKay S, Hemming L, Battersby-Coulter R, Cooper C, Veresova M, Li A, Reavley N, Rice S, Lamblin M, Pirkis J, Reidenberg D, Harrison V, Skehan J, La Sala L. #chatsafe 2.0. updated guidelines to support young people to communicate safely online about self-harm and suicide: A Delphi expert consensus study. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0289494. [PMID: 37531397 PMCID: PMC10395901 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0289494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Young people use social media to communicate about self-harm and suicide and this is associated with both potential risks and protective effects. The #chatsafe guidelines were originally developed in 2018 to equip young people to communicate safely online about suicide. They were shown to be safe, acceptable, and beneficial; however, they do not provide guidance on self-harm, and social media is constantly evolving. This study aimed to update the #chatsafe guidelines to reflect new evidence and current social media affordances, and to include guidance on self-harm. METHODS A Delphi expert consensus study was conducted, comprising six stages: 1) A systematic search of peer-reviewed and grey literature; 2) A series of roundtables with key stakeholders including social media companies, policymakers, and young people; 3) Questionnaire development; 4) Expert panel formation; 5) Data collection and analysis; and 6) Guideline development. RESULTS A total of 191 items were included in the new #chatsafe guidelines. These were organised into eight themes, which became the overarching sections of the guidelines: 1) General tips; 2) Creating self-harm and suicide content; 3) Consuming self-harm and suicide content; 4) Livestreams of self-harm and suicide acts; 4) Self-harm and suicide games, pacts, and hoaxes; 6) Self-harm and suicide communities; 7) Bereavement and communicating about someone who has died by suicide; and 8) Guidance for influencers. DISCUSSION The new guidelines include updated and new information on online communication about self-harm, livestreams, games, pacts, and hoaxes, as well as guidance for influencers. They will be disseminated via a national social media campaign and supported by a series of adult-facing resources. Given the acceptability of the original guidelines and the ubiquitous use of social media by young people, it is hoped that the new guidelines will be a useful resource for young people and adults alike, both in Australia and worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jo Robinson
- Orygen, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Pinar Thorn
- Orygen, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Samuel McKay
- Orygen, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Laura Hemming
- Orygen, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, Australian National University, Acton, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Rikki Battersby-Coulter
- Orygen, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Charlie Cooper
- Orygen, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Maria Veresova
- Orygen, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Angela Li
- Orygen, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Nicola Reavley
- Centre for Mental Health, School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Simon Rice
- Orygen, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Michelle Lamblin
- Orygen, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jane Pirkis
- Centre for Mental Health, School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Dan Reidenberg
- Suicide Awareness Voices of Education, Bloomington, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Vicki Harrison
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Jaelea Skehan
- College of Health, Medicine and Wellbeing, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Louise La Sala
- Orygen, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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Rodway C, Tham SG, Richards N, Ibrahim S, Turnbull P, Kapur N, Appleby L. Online harms? Suicide-related online experience: a UK-wide case series study of young people who die by suicide. Psychol Med 2023; 53:4434-4445. [PMID: 35587034 PMCID: PMC10388316 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291722001258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Few studies have examined online experience by young people who die by suicide. METHODS A 3-year UK-wide consecutive case series of all young people aged 10-19 who died by suicide, based on national mortality data. We extracted information on the antecedents of suicide of 544 of these 595 deaths (91%) from official investigations, mainly inquests. RESULTS Suicide-related online experience was reported in 24% (n = 128/544) of suicide deaths in young people between 2014 and 2016, equivalent to 43 deaths per year, and was more common in girls than boys (OR 1.87, 95% CI 1.23-2.85, p = 0.003) and those identifying as LGBT (OR 2.35, 95% CI 1.10-5.05, p = 0.028). Searching for information about method was most common (n = 68, 13%), followed by posting suicidal ideas online (n = 57, 10%). Self-harm, bereavement (especially by suicide), social isolation, and mental and physical ill-health were more likely in those known to have suicide-related online experience compared to those who did not. 29 (5%) were bullied online, more often girls (OR 2.84, 1.34-6.04, p = 0.007). Online bullying often accompanied face-to-face bullying (n = 16/29, 67%). CONCLUSIONS Suicide-related online experience is a common, but likely underestimated, antecedent to suicide in young people. Although its causal role is unclear, it may influence suicidality in this population. Mental health professionals should be aware that suicide-related online experience - not limited to social media - is a potential risk for young patients, and may be linked to experiences offline. For public health, wider action is required on internet regulation and support for children and their families.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. Rodway
- National Confidential Inquiry into Suicide and Safety in Mental Health (NCISH), Centre for Mental Health and Safety, School of Health Sciences, The University of Manchester, 2nd Floor Jean McFarlane Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL UK
| | - S. G. Tham
- National Confidential Inquiry into Suicide and Safety in Mental Health (NCISH), Centre for Mental Health and Safety, School of Health Sciences, The University of Manchester, 2nd Floor Jean McFarlane Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL UK
| | - N. Richards
- National Confidential Inquiry into Suicide and Safety in Mental Health (NCISH), Centre for Mental Health and Safety, School of Health Sciences, The University of Manchester, 2nd Floor Jean McFarlane Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL UK
| | - S. Ibrahim
- National Confidential Inquiry into Suicide and Safety in Mental Health (NCISH), Centre for Mental Health and Safety, School of Health Sciences, The University of Manchester, 2nd Floor Jean McFarlane Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL UK
| | - P. Turnbull
- National Confidential Inquiry into Suicide and Safety in Mental Health (NCISH), Centre for Mental Health and Safety, School of Health Sciences, The University of Manchester, 2nd Floor Jean McFarlane Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL UK
| | - N. Kapur
- National Confidential Inquiry into Suicide and Safety in Mental Health (NCISH), Centre for Mental Health and Safety, School of Health Sciences, The University of Manchester, 2nd Floor Jean McFarlane Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL UK
| | - L. Appleby
- National Confidential Inquiry into Suicide and Safety in Mental Health (NCISH), Centre for Mental Health and Safety, School of Health Sciences, The University of Manchester, 2nd Floor Jean McFarlane Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL UK
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Susi K, Glover-Ford F, Stewart A, Knowles Bevis R, Hawton K. Research Review: Viewing self-harm images on the internet and social media platforms: systematic review of the impact and associated psychological mechanisms. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2023. [PMID: 36940718 DOI: 10.1111/jcpp.13754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 03/23/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Viewing self-harm and suicide-related images online can precede these behaviours. We reviewed studies of potential impacts and mechanisms associated with viewing self-harm-related images on the internet and social media. METHOD CINAHL, Cochrane Library, EMBASE, HMIC, MEDLINE, PsycArticles, PsycINFO, PubMed, Scopus, Sociological Abstracts and Web of Science Core Collection databases were searched for relevant studies from inception to 22 January 2022. Inclusion criteria were English language, peer-reviewed, empirical studies with data related to impacts of viewing self-harm images or videos on the internet or social media. Quality and risk of bias were assessed using Critical Appraisal Skills Programme tools. A narrative synthesis approach was used. RESULTS Of the 15 identified studies, all found harmful effects of viewing self-harm-related images online. These included escalation of self-harm, reinforcement of engagement behaviours (e.g. commenting and sharing images), encouragement of social comparison (comparing own self-harm with others), development of a self-harm identity, social connection perpetuating or escalating self-harm, and emotional, cognitive, and physiological impacts triggering self-harm urges and acts. Nine studies found protective effects, including self-harm mitigation or reduction, promotion of self-harm recovery, encouraging social connection and help-giving, and emotional, cognitive and physiological impacts mitigating or reducing self-harm urges and acts. Causality of impact was not determined in any study. Most of the studies did not explicitly evaluate or discuss potential mechanisms. CONCLUSIONS Viewing self-harm images online may have both harmful and protective effects, but harmful effects predominated in the studies. Clinically, it is important to assess individual's access to images relating to self-harm and suicide, and the associated impacts, alongside pre-existing vulnerabilities and contextual factors. Higher quality longitudinal research with less reliance on retrospective self-report is needed, as well as studies that test potential mechanisms. We have developed a conceptual model of the impact of viewing self-harm images online to inform future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karima Susi
- Oxford Institute of Clinical Psychology Training and Research, Isis Education Centre, Warneford Hospital, Oxford Health NHS Foundation Trust and University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Oxford Health NHS Foundation Trust, Warneford Hospital, Oxford, UK
- Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services, Leicestershire Partnership NHS Trust, Leicester, UK
- Step 4 Psychological Therapies, Nottinghamshire Healthcare NHS Foundation Trust, Nottingham, UK
| | - Francesca Glover-Ford
- Oxford Institute of Clinical Psychology Training and Research, Isis Education Centre, Warneford Hospital, Oxford Health NHS Foundation Trust and University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Oxford Health NHS Foundation Trust, Warneford Hospital, Oxford, UK
| | - Anne Stewart
- Oxford Health NHS Foundation Trust, Warneford Hospital, Oxford, UK
- Department of Psychiatry, Warneford Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Rebecca Knowles Bevis
- Oxford Institute of Clinical Psychology Training and Research, Isis Education Centre, Warneford Hospital, Oxford Health NHS Foundation Trust and University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Keith Hawton
- Oxford Health NHS Foundation Trust, Warneford Hospital, Oxford, UK
- Centre for Suicide Research, Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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Thorn P, La Sala L, Hetrick S, Rice S, Lamblin M, Robinson J. Motivations and perceived harms and benefits of online communication about self-harm: An interview study with young people. Digit Health 2023; 9:20552076231176689. [PMID: 37252260 PMCID: PMC10214072 DOI: 10.1177/20552076231176689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Self-harm behaviour is prevalent among young people and online communication about self-harm is frequent. These online communications are associated with potential harms and potential benefits. To date, few studies have explored the motivations and mechanisms involved in youth online communication about self-harm. Objective This study aimed to explore why young people communicate online about self-harm and the perceived benefits and harms of these communications. Methods Twenty young people aged between 18 and 25 years completed an online interview. Interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. Thematic analysis was used to identify themes. Results Four main themes are reported: (1) crossing from offline to online-the double-edged affordances of social media: young people engaged in online communication about self-harm because they were unable or unwilling to speak about their experiences in offline contexts. Online spaces afforded anonymity and peer support, which were associated with benefits and harms; (2) user-generated is not quite the same as user-resonated: perceptions were influenced by whether the young person created or viewed or responded to the content. Written and visual content had pros and cons; (3) it's not just you, it's mostly me-individual characteristics influence perceptions: age and mental state influenced perceptions and behavior; and (4) beyond individuals-parameters are protective: leadership and platform policies and procedures aided safety. Conclusions Online communication about self-harm is neither entirely helpful nor harmful. Perceptions are influenced by individual, social, and systematic factors. Evidence-based guidelines are needed to increase young people's online self-harm literacy and help them build effective communication skills to buffer psychological and potentially physical harm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pinar Thorn
- Orygen, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Louise La Sala
- Orygen, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Sarah Hetrick
- Department of Psychological Medicine, The
University of Auckland, Auckland CBD, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Simon Rice
- Orygen, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Michelle Lamblin
- Orygen, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Jo Robinson
- Orygen, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
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Subasinghe A, Hart LM, Radeka A, Paxton SJ, Morgan A. Young people's help-giving actions towards a peer with a mental health problem: A systematic review and narrative synthesis. Early Interv Psychiatry 2022; 17:337-353. [PMID: 36222277 DOI: 10.1111/eip.13354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 09/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Young people often seek help from their peers for mental health problems. However, little is known about young people's experiences of helping a peer with a mental health problem. The aim of this study was to systematically review the literature on young people's help-giving actions, highlight any gaps in the research and examine the evidence for interventions designed to increase and improve help-giving. The secondary aim was to compare findings between help-giving in face-to-face and online settings. METHODS Embase, SCOPUS, PsycINFO and MEDLINE electronic databases were searched for English studies published from 2003 onwards. Studies focusing on the help-giving actions of young people (aged 12-25 years) towards a peer with a mental health problem were included. Risk of bias was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute quality appraisal tools. Data were synthesized using thematic and narrative analysis. RESULTS Twenty-one studies (3440 participants) were included. The most frequently reported help-giving themes were encouraging professional and adult support and providing emotional support. Although limited studies reported on online help-giving, online settings allowed for immediate help to be provided despite time or location. Both positive and negative outcomes for helping were identified. Improvements in the quality of help-giving were found after training; however, help-giving for mental health crises was poor. CONCLUSIONS Further research regarding the young people's help-giving actions to peers online is required. Training programs need to consider how to further improve the quality of help-giving among young people and to increase the trainees' confidence in helping, particularly in a mental health crisis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aruni Subasinghe
- School of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University, Victoria, Australia
| | - Laura M Hart
- School of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University, Victoria, Australia.,Centre for Mental Health, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Angelika Radeka
- School of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University, Victoria, Australia
| | - Susan J Paxton
- School of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University, Victoria, Australia
| | - Amy Morgan
- Centre for Mental Health, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Charles A, Hare-Duke L, Nudds H, Franklin D, Llewellyn-Beardsley J, Rennick-Egglestone S, Gust O, Ng F, Evans E, Knox E, Townsend E, Yeo C, Slade M. Typology of content warnings and trigger warnings: Systematic review. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0266722. [PMID: 35507551 PMCID: PMC9067675 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0266722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Content and trigger warnings give information about the content of material prior to receiving it. Different typologies of content warnings have emerged across multiple sectors, including health, social media, education and entertainment. Benefits arising from their use are contested, with recent empirical evidence from educational sectors suggesting they may raise anxiety and reinforce the centrality of trauma experience to identity, whilst benefits relate to increased individual agency in making informed decisions about engaging with content. Research is hampered by the absence of a shared inter-sectoral typology of warnings. The aims of this systematic review are to develop a typology of content warnings and to identify the contexts in which content warnings are used. The review was pre-registered (ID: CRD42020197687, URL: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?ID=CRD42020197687) and used five sources: electronic databases covering multiple sectors (n = 19); table of contents from multi-sectoral journals (n = 5), traditional and social media websites (n = 53 spanning 36 countries); forward and backward citation tracking; and expert consultation (n = 15). In total, 6,254 documents were reviewed for eligibility and 136 documents from 32 countries were included. These were synthesised to develop the Narrative Experiences Online (NEON) content warning typology, which comprises 14 domains: Violence, Sex, Stigma, Disturbing content, Language, Risky behaviours, Mental health, Death, Parental guidance, Crime, Abuse, Socio-political, Flashing lights and Objects. Ten sectors were identified: Education, Audio-visual industries, Games and Apps, Media studies, Social sciences, Comic books, Social media, Music, Mental health, and Science and Technology. Presentation formats (n = 15) comprised: education materials, film, games, websites, television, books, social media, verbally, print media, apps, radio, music, research, DVD/video and policy document. The NEON content warning typology provides a framework for consistent warning use and specification of key contextual information (sector, presentation format, target audience) in future content warning research, allowing personalisation of content warnings and investigation of global sociopolitical trends over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashleigh Charles
- School of Health Sciences, Institute of Mental Health, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Laurie Hare-Duke
- School of Health Sciences, Institute of Mental Health, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Hannah Nudds
- School of Health Sciences, Institute of Mental Health, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Donna Franklin
- Narrative Experience Online Lived Experience Advisory Panel, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Joy Llewellyn-Beardsley
- School of Health Sciences, Institute of Mental Health, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Stefan Rennick-Egglestone
- School of Health Sciences, Institute of Mental Health, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Onni Gust
- Department of History, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Fiona Ng
- School of Health Sciences, Institute of Mental Health, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Elizabeth Evans
- School of Cultures, Languages, and Area Studies, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Emily Knox
- School of Information Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Ellen Townsend
- School of Psychology, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Caroline Yeo
- School of Health Sciences, Institute of Mental Health, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Mike Slade
- School of Health Sciences, Institute of Mental Health, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
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