Adverse Effects of Virtual and Augmented Reality Interventions in Psychiatry: Systematic Review

Mental health in the virtual world: Are we ready for the metaverse era?

The advent of the metaverse, including virtual reality, augmented reality, and artificial intelligence, is an undeniable issue that health care scientists need to update. It influences all fields of knowledge, interpersonal relationships, and health. Regarding mental health since the post-coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic, it is necessary to consider and understand the potential, possibilities, weaknesses, and consequences arising from and provided by this new scenario. Due to the increasing need for mental health monitoring and care, mental health treatments require in-depth training and preparation to achieve the maximum use of the metaverse advantages and possibilities. Currently, very little is known about the effectiveness of remote mental health treatment, but it is certainly suggested that accessibility and the characteristics associated with the use of metaverse technologies may represent new horizons for accessibility and approach tools, as long as more studies are carried out and more evidence is collected to develop accurate guidelines, safe training, solve ethical concerns, and overcome limitations.

Augmented Reality as an Aid to Behavior Therapy for Anxiety Disorders: A Narrative Review

Anxiety disorders are among the most common mental disorders worldwide. These conditions are characterized by excessive anxiety that is difficult to control. In most anxiety disorders, symptoms are triggered by exposure to specific objects or situations. This leads sufferers to avoid such exposures, leading to impaired social and occupational functioning and reduced quality of life. Therapies based on behavioral principles, either alone or in combination with cognitive techniques, are the most effective psychological interventions for anxiety disorders. However, the effectiveness of these therapies may be limited due to a lack of generalization from clinic to real-world settings. Augmented reality (AR) is a technology that provides an interactive experience by superimposing computer-generated content, often in multiple sensory modalities, on the real world. Emerging evidence suggests that AR may be useful in treating a broad range of mental disorders, including anxiety disorders. This review examines the evidence for the use of AR-based techniques as an aid to behavioral or cognitive-behavioral therapies for anxiety disorders. The available evidence suggests that this method may offer significant advantages over conventional therapies, particularly in the case of specific phobias, but also in social anxiety disorder. AR can also be combined with other novel technologies to monitor psychophysiological markers of anxiety and its reduction over the course of treatment. The advantages of AR could be related to its combination of real and simulated content, allowing for better generalization of the benefits of conventional exposure-based therapy. Though the safety, efficacy, and cost-effectiveness of this method need to be confirmed in larger samples, it could lead to a paradigm shift in the way behavioral therapies for anxiety disorders are conceptualized and delivered.

Virtual reality as a treatment for chronic musculoskeletal pain syndromes

Chronic musculoskeletal pain syndromes, including fibromyalgia, are often resistant to conventional medications and invasive therapies. Central hypersensitization, neurotransmitter dysregulation, and autonomic nervous system abnormalities are key pathomechanisms, frequently resulting in widespread pain and a variety of psychosomatic symptoms. Virtual Reality (VR) applications have demonstrated effectiveness in reducing pain, both during and after interventions, and in chronic conditions such as fibromyalgia and back pain. The proposed mechanisms behind VR's effectiveness include distraction and immersion, coupled with cognitive behavioral therapy, which promote neuroplasticity and alter pain perceptions. Functional MRI studies have shown the impact of VR interventions on specific brain regions. Advances in hardware and software, potentially combined with treatments like biofeedback, could enhance VR's role in managing chronic pain. Currently, VR for musculoskeletal pain syndromes is primarily used within multimodal programs, but it is also available for home use as a standalone health application. Future research should focus on the 'drug-like' effects of VR, requiring controlled trials with comparable study populations and appropriate sham interventions.

The Effectiveness of Virtual and Augmented Reality in Surgical Pain Management: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials

BACKGROUND

Satisfactory management of postoperative pain remains challenging. Nonpharmacological modalities such as virtual and augmented reality (VR/AR) offer potential benefits and are becoming increasingly popular. This systematic review evaluates the effectiveness and safety of VR/AR interventions on postoperative pain and recovery.

METHODS

MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, Web of Science, and CENTRAL databases were searched from inception to July 27, 2023, for randomized controlled trials (RCTs), published in English, evaluating the use of VR/AR interventions for surgical pain relief. Study selection and data extraction were performed by pairs of reviewers independently and in duplicate, and potential risk of bias was determined using the Risk of Bias-version 2 (RoB 2) tool. Our outcomes included pain relief, reduction of anxiety, satisfaction, and adverse effects. Due to substantial heterogeneity, a narrative synthesis without meta-analysis was performed.

RESULTS

We included 35 trials among 2257 citations, categorized as surgery (n = 12), minor procedures (n = 15), and postoperative physiotherapy (n = 8). Surgical group included various surgeries, with 11 using immersive VR predominantly in the postoperative period, and most reporting no differences in pain, but potential for reduced anxiety and sedation requirements. In the minor procedures group, most studies reported decreased pain and anxiety during the procedural performance. Two studies reported increased heart rate, while 2 others reported better hemodynamic stability. Home-based AR physiotherapy achieved (n = 6) similar pain and functional outcomes after knee replacement, with 1 large study (n = 306) reporting reduction of mean costs by $2745 for provision of 12 weeks physiotherapy. There were some concerns around potential bias for most studies, as the nature of interventions make it challenging to blind assessors and participants. No important adverse effects were noted using VR/AR technology.

CONCLUSIONS

Evidence from RCTs indicates that the use of immersive VR during minor procedures may reduce procedural pain, decrease anxiety, and improve satisfaction. However, small studies, inconsistent effect, and variation in the application of interventions are important limitations. Evidence to support the application of AR/VR for major surgeries is limited and needs to be further investigated. Use of home-based physiotherapy with AR likely has economic advantages, and facilitates virtual care for appropriate patients who can access and use the technology safely.

Multicenter, randomized, controlled comparative-effectiveness study comparing virtual reality to sedation and standard local anesthetic for pain and anxiety during epidural steroid injections

Background

The use of sedation during interventional procedures has continued to rise resulting in increased costs, complications and reduced validity during diagnostic injections, prompting a search for alternatives. Virtual reality (VR) has been shown to reduce pain and anxiety during painful procedures, but no studies have compared it to a control and active comparator for a pain-alleviating procedure. The main objective of this study was to determine whether VR reduces procedure-related pain and other outcomes for epidural steroid injections (ESI).

Methods

A randomized controlled trial was conducted in 146 patients undergoing an ESI at 6 hospitals in Thailand and the United States. Patients were allocated to receive immersive VR with local anesthetic, sedation with midazolam and fentanyl plus local anesthetic, or local anesthetic alone. The primary outcome was procedure-related pain recorded on a 0-10 scale. Other immediate-term outcome measures were pain from a standardized subcutaneous skin wheal, procedure-related anxiety, ability to communicate, satisfaction, and time to discharge. Intermediate-term outcome measures at 4 weeks included back and leg pain scores, function, and success defined as a ≥2-point decrease in average leg pain coupled with a score ≥5/7 on a Patient Global Impression of Change scale.

Findings

Procedure-related pain scores with both VR (mean 3.7 (SD 2.5)) and sedation (mean 3.2 (SD 3.0)) were lower compared to control (mean 5.2 (SD 3.1); mean differences -1.5 (-2.7, -0.4) and -2.1 (-3.3, -0.9), respectively), but VR and sedation scores did not significantly differ (mean difference 0.5 (-0.6, 1.7)). Among secondary outcomes, communication was decreased in the sedation group (mean 3.7 (SD 0.9)) compared to the VR group (mean 4.1 (SD 0.5); mean difference 0.4 (0.1, 0.6)), but neither VR nor sedation was different than control. The trends favoring sedation and VR over control for procedure-related anxiety and satisfaction were not statistically significant. Post-procedural recovery time was longer for the sedation group compared to both VR and control groups. There were no meaningful intermediate-term differences between groups except that medication reduction was lowest in the control group.

Interpretation

VR provides comparable benefit to sedation for procedure-related pain, anxiety and satisfaction, but with fewer side effects, superior communication and a shorter recovery period.

Funding

Funded in part by grants from MIRROR, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, U.S. Dept. of Defense, grant # HU00011920011. Equipment was provided by Harvard MedTech, Las Vegas, NV.

Mental health providers are inexperienced but interested in telehealth-based virtual reality therapy: survey study

Virtual reality (VR) is an emerging technology that can enhance experiences and outcomes in mental healthcare. However, mental health therapists have been slow to adopt VR into practice. Implementation of telehealth-based VR therapy (tele-VR) could catalyze adoption and innovation in mental healthcare. To explore therapists' perspectives on tele-VR, we conducted a cross-sectional survey of practicing mental health providers in the United States in June-July 2023. We analyzed 176 completed surveys from therapists, of whom 51.14% had no prior experience with VR, only 6.25% had used VR clinically, and 56.82% had neutral impressions of VR for therapy. Despite therapists' general inexperience with VR, therapists indicated a wide variety of tele-VR simulations (e.g., social situations, flying, heights) and features (e.g., personalized spaces, homework, interactivity) would be moderately to extremely useful for their practices. Therapists also requested additional VR simulations and features for their telehealth clients such as behavioral skills training, exposure therapy, gender identity therapy, and psychological assessments in VR. Therapists rated Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act compliance, the ability to try VR before buying, affordability for therapists, accessibility for clients, and insurance coverage as the five most influential implementation factors for tele-VR. Overall, therapists were generally inexperienced and neutral about VR for telehealth therapy, but were interested in tele-VR for specific applications. These findings provide actionable directions for future research and collaborative development of therapeutic VR content and features.

Mental health in the virtual world: Challenges and opportunities in the metaverse era

Current rates of mental illness are worrisome. Mental illness mainly affects females and younger age groups. The use of the internet to deliver mental health care has been growing since 2020 and includes the implementation of novel mental health treatments using virtual reality, augmented reality, and artificial intelligence. A new three dimensional digital environment, known as the metaverse, has emerged as the next version of the Internet. Artificial intelligence, augmented reality, and virtual reality will create fully immersive, experiential, and interactive online environments in the metaverse. People will use a unique avatar to do anything they do in their "real" lives, including seeking and receiving mental health care. In this opinion review, we reflect on how the metaverse could reshape how we deliver mental health treatment, its opportunities, and its challenges.

Investigating cortical activity during cybersickness by fNIRS

This study investigated brain responses during cybersickness in healthy adults using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Thirty participants wore a head-mounted display and observed a virtual roller coaster scene that induced cybersickness. Cortical activation during the virtual roller coaster task was measured using fNIRS. Cybersickness symptoms were evaluated using a Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ) administered after the virtual rollercoaster. Pearson correlations were performed for cybersickness symptoms and the beta coefficients of hemodynamic responses. The group analysis of oxyhemoglobin (HbO) and total hemoglobin (HbT) levels revealed deactivation in the bilateral angular gyrus during cybersickness. In the Pearson correlation analyses, the HbO and HbT beta coefficients in the bilateral angular gyrus had a significant positive correlation with the total SSQ and disorientation. These results indicated that the angular gyrus was associated with cybersickness. These findings suggest that the hemodynamic response in the angular gyrus could be a biomarker for evaluating cybersickness symptoms.

[VR-supported therapy for anxiety and posttraumatic stress disorder: current possibilities and limitations]

BACKGROUND

Virtual reality (VR) is increasingly used in psychotherapy, and the speed of development of therapeutic VR tools is continuously increasing.

OBJECTIVE

This narrative review provides an overview of the state of the art regarding VR applications for psychotherapy.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The current state of VR therapy research for anxiety disorders and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is summarized. The focus lies on VR exposure therapy. Current developments in the field are outlined.

RESULTS

For anxiety disorders, especially phobic disorders, there are already positive recommendations in the current German S3 guidelines. For PTSD, the development of VR therapy tools is still in a relatively early stage.

CONCLUSION

The development of mobile cost-effective VR solutions in recent years has enabled entirely new applications for VR. The empirical challenges of these new developments are considerable. Nevertheless, the chances for an improvement of psychotherapeutic routine care are good.

Virtual reality-assisted cognitive behavioral therapy for patients with alcohol use disorder: a randomized feasibility study

Introduction

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is an evidence-based treatment for alcohol use disorder (AUD). Exposure to high-risk situations in virtual reality (VR) has been suggested to have a potential therapeutical benefit, but no previous study has combined VR and CBT for AUD. We aimed to investigate the feasibility of using VR-simulated high-risk environments in CBT-based treatment of AUD.

Methods

We randomized ten treatment-seeking AUD-diagnosed individuals to three sessions of conventional CBT or VR-assisted CBT performed at two outpatient clinics in Denmark. In each session, patients randomized to VR-CBT were exposed to VR-simulations from a restaurant to induce authentic thoughts, emotions, physiological reactions, and craving for CBT purposes. The primary outcome measure was feasibility: Drop-out rate, psychological reactions, and simulator sickness. Secondary outcomes were assessment of preliminary short-term changes in alcohol consumption and craving from baseline to one-week and one-month follow-up. In addition, the study was conducted for training in operationalization of VR equipment, treatment manuals, and research questionnaires.

Results

The majority of patients completed all study visits (90%). VR induced authentic high-risk related thoughts, emotions, and physiological reactions that were considered relevant for CBT by patients and therapists. Four of five patients randomized to VR-CBT experienced cravings during VR simulations, and most of these patients (3/5) experienced mild simulator sickness during VR exposure. The preliminary data showed that patients receiving VR-CBT had more reduction in alcohol consumption than patients receiving conventional CBT at one week- (median 94% vs. 72%) and one-month follow-up (median 98% vs. 55%). Similar results were found regarding changes in cravings.

Conclusion

We demonstrated VR-CBT to be a feasible intervention for patients with AUD which supports continued investigations in a larger randomized clinical trial evaluating the efficacy of VR-CBT.

Clinical trial registration

https://www.clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT04990765?cond=addiction%20CRAVR&rank=2, identifier NCT05042180.

Being in Virtual Reality and Its Influence on Brain Health-An Overview of Benefits, Limitations and Prospects

BACKGROUND

Dynamic technological development and its enormous impact on modern societies are posing new challenges for 21st-century neuroscience. A special place is occupied by technologies based on virtual reality (VR). VR tools have already played a significant role in both basic and clinical neuroscience due to their high accuracy, sensitivity and specificity and, above all, high ecological value.

OBJECTIVE

Being in a digital world affects the functioning of the body as a whole and its individual systems. The data obtained so far, both from experimental and modeling studies, as well as (clinical) observations, indicate their great and promising potential, but apart from the benefits, there are also losses and negative consequences for users.

METHODS

This review was conducted according to the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) framework across electronic databases (such as Web of Science Core Collection; PubMed; and Scopus, Taylor & Francis Online and Wiley Online Library) to identify beneficial effects and applications, as well as adverse impacts, especially on brain health in human neuroscience.

RESULTS

More than half of these articles were published within the last five years and represent state-of-the-art approaches and results (e.g., 54.7% in Web of Sciences and 63.4% in PubMed), with review papers accounting for approximately 16%. The results show that in addition to proposed novel devices and systems, various methods or procedures for testing, validation and standardization are presented (about 1% of articles). Also included are virtual developers and experts, (bio)(neuro)informatics specialists, neuroscientists and medical professionals.

CONCLUSIONS

VR environments allow for expanding the field of research on perception and cognitive and motor imagery, both in healthy and patient populations. In this context, research on neuroplasticity phenomena, including mirror neuron networks and the effects of applied virtual (mirror) tasks and training, is of interest in virtual prevention and neurogeriatrics, especially in neurotherapy and neurorehabilitation in basic/clinical and digital neuroscience.

Integrating knowledge, skills, and attitudes: professional training required for virtual reality therapists in palliative care

Fully immersive virtual reality (VR) is an advanced technology increasingly studied and used in palliative care for symptom management. While the findings shed a positive light on its therapeutic potential, VR carries adverse effects, leading to ethical concerns. Based on the clinical experiences of a registered clinical psychologist who is also a certified thanatologist, we put forward a perspective on the importance of professional training for VR therapists in view of the possible risks posed by VR in palliative care. We propose professional trainings on knowledge, skills, and attitudes to ensure patients' safety while maximizing the therapeutic benefits of VR. Given the scarcity of reports on such an area, we hope this perspective article opens up discussions and contributes to current understanding and emerging future directions to ensure quality and ethical delivery of VR in palliative care.

Use of augmented reality in mental health-related conditions: A systematic review

Objective

Augmented reality (AR) is a relatively new technology that merges virtual and physical environments, augmenting one's perception of reality. AR creates a computer-generated environment that evokes a unique perception of reality, where real and virtual objects are registered with one another, which operates interactively and in real time. Recently, the medical application of AR technology has dramatically increased with other assisted technologies, from training to clinical practice. The ability to manipulate the real environment extensively has given AR interventions an advantage over traditional approaches. In this study, we aim to conduct a systematic review of the use of AR to have a better understanding of how the use of AR may affect patients with mental health-related conditions when combined with gamification.

Method

This systematic review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines by searching Pubmed and Web of Science databases.

Results and Conclusion

We identified 48 relevant studies that fulfill the criteria. The studies were grouped into four categories: Neurodevelopmental disorders, anxiety and phobia, psychoeducation & well-being, and procedural & pain management. Our results revealed the effectiveness of AR in mental health-related conditions. However, the heterogeneity and small sample sizes demonstrate the need for further research with larger sample sizes and high-quality study designs.