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Xiaofeng N, Jian C, Jingjing W, Zhanbo Q, Yifei S, Jing Z, Shuwen H. Correlation of gut microbiota with leukopenia after chemotherapy in patients with colorectal cancer. BMC Microbiol 2023; 23:349. [PMID: 37978347 PMCID: PMC10655349 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-023-03067-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The most common toxic side effect after chemotherapy, one of the main treatments for colorectal cancer (CRC), is myelosuppression. OBJECTIVE To analyze the correlation between gut microbiota and leukopenia after chemotherapy in CRC patients. METHODS Stool samples were collected from 56 healthy individuals and 55 CRC patients. According to the leukocytes levels in peripheral blood, the CRC patients were divided into hypoleukocytes group (n = 13) and normal leukocytes group (n = 42). Shannon index, Simpson index, Ace index, Chao index and Coverage index were used to analyze the diversity of gut microbiota. LDA and Student's t-test(St test) were used for analysis of differences. Six machine learning algorithms, including logistic regression (LR) algorithm, random forest (RF) algorithm, neural network (NN) algorithm, support vector machine (SVM) algorithm, catboost algorithm and gradient boosting tree algorithm, were used to construct the prediction model of gut microbiota with leukopenia after chemotherapy for CRC. RESULTS Compared with healthy group, the microbiota alpha diversity of CRC patients was significantly decreased (p < 0.05). After analyzing the gut microbiota differences of the two groups, 15 differential bacteria, such as Bacteroides, Faecalibacterium and Streptococcus, were screened. RF prediction model had the highest accuracy, and the gut microbiota with the highest predictive value were Peptostreptococcus, Faecalibacterium, and norank_f__Ruminococcaceae, respectively. Compared with normal leukocytes group, the microbiota alpha diversity of hypoleukocytes group was significantly decreased (p < 0.05). The proportion of Escherichia-Shigella was significantly decreased in the hypoleukocytes group. After analyzing the gut microbiota differences of the two groups, 9 differential bacteria, such as Escherichia-Shigella, Fusicatenibacter and Cetobacterium, were screened. RF prediction model had the highest accuracy, and the gut microbiota with the highest predictive value were Fusicatenibacte, Cetobacterium, and Paraeggerthella. CONCLUSION Gut microbiota is related to leukopenia after chemotherapy. The gut microbiota may provide a novel method for predicting myelosuppression after chemotherapy in CRC patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ni Xiaofeng
- Huzhou Central Hospital, Affiliated Central Hospital HuZhou University, Huzhou, China
| | - Chu Jian
- Huzhou Central Hospital, Affiliated Central Hospital HuZhou University, Huzhou, China
- Fifth School of Clinical Medicine of Zhejiang, Huzhou Central Hospital, Chinese Medical University, Huzhou, China
| | - Wang Jingjing
- Huzhou Central Hospital, Affiliated Central Hospital HuZhou University, Huzhou, China
| | - Qu Zhanbo
- Huzhou Central Hospital, Affiliated Central Hospital HuZhou University, Huzhou, China
- Fifth School of Clinical Medicine of Zhejiang, Huzhou Central Hospital, Chinese Medical University, Huzhou, China
| | - Song Yifei
- Huzhou Central Hospital, Affiliated Central Hospital HuZhou University, Huzhou, China
| | - Zhuang Jing
- Huzhou Central Hospital, Affiliated Central Hospital HuZhou University, Huzhou, China.
- Key Laboratory of Multiomics Research and Clinical Transformation of Digestive Cancer of Huzhou, Huzhou, China.
| | - Han Shuwen
- Huzhou Central Hospital, Affiliated Central Hospital HuZhou University, Huzhou, China.
- Fifth School of Clinical Medicine of Zhejiang, Huzhou Central Hospital, Chinese Medical University, Huzhou, China.
- Key Laboratory of Multiomics Research and Clinical Transformation of Digestive Cancer of Huzhou, Huzhou, China.
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Ullah F, Pillai AB, Omar N, Dima D, Harichand S. Early-Onset Colorectal Cancer: Current Insights. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:3202. [PMID: 37370811 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15123202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Revised: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Over the past decade, the incidence of colorectal cancer has increased in individuals under the age of 50 years. Meanwhile, the incidence has gradually decreased in the older population. As described herein, we reviewed the available literature to summarize the current landscape of early-onset colorectal cancer, including risk factors, clinicopathological presentation, genetic makeup of patients, and management. Currently, early-onset colorectal cancer is treated similarly as late-onset colorectal cancer, yet the available literature shows that early-onset colorectal cancer is more aggressive and different, and this remains a significant unmet need. A detailed understanding of early-onset colorectal cancer is needed to identify risk factors for the increased incidence and tailor treatments accordingly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fauzia Ullah
- Department of Translational Hematology and Oncology Research, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Ashwathy Balachandran Pillai
- Department of General Internal Medicine, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Najiullah Omar
- Department of Translational Hematology and Oncology Research, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Danai Dima
- Department of Translational Hematology and Oncology Research, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Taussig Cancer Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Seema Harichand
- Department of Internal Medicine, Mission Cancer + Blood, University of Iowa, Des Moines, IA 50309, USA
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Colon Cancer Microbiome Landscaping: Differences in Right- and Left-Sided Colon Cancer and a Tumor Microbiome-Ileal Microbiome Association. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24043265. [PMID: 36834671 PMCID: PMC9963782 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24043265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2023] Open
Abstract
In the current era of precision oncology, it is widely acknowledged that CRC is a heterogeneous disease entity. Tumor location (right- or left-sided colon cancer or rectal cancer) is a crucial factor in determining disease progression as well as prognosis and influences disease management. In the last decade, numerous works have reported that the microbiome is an important element of CRC carcinogenesis, progression and therapy response. Owing to the heterogeneous nature of microbiomes, the findings of these studies were inconsistent. The majority of the studies combined colon cancer (CC) and rectal cancer (RC) samples as CRC for analysis. Furthermore, the small intestine, as the major site for immune surveillance in the gut, is understudied compared to the colon. Thus, the CRC heterogeneity puzzle is far from being solved, and more research is necessary for prospective trials that separately investigate CC and RC. Our prospective study aimed to map the colon cancer landscape using 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing in biopsy samples from the terminal ileum, healthy colon tissue, healthy rectal tissue and tumor tissue as well as in preoperative and postoperative stool samples of 41 patients. While fecal samples provide a good approximation of the average gut microbiome composition, mucosal biopsies allow for detecting subtle variations in local microbial communities. In particular, the small bowel microbiome has remained poorly characterized, mainly because of sampling difficulties. Our analysis revealed the following: (i) right- and left-sided colon cancers harbor distinct and diverse microbiomes, (ii) the tumor microbiome leads to a more consistent cancer-defined microbiome between locations and reveals a tumor microbiome-ileal microbiome association, (iii) the stool only partly reflects the microbiome landscape in patients with CC, and (iv) mechanical bowel preparation and perioperative antibiotics together with surgery result in major changes in the stool microbiome, characterized by a significant increase in the abundance of potentially pathogenic bacteria, such as Enterococcus. Collectively, our results provide new and valuable insights into the complex microbiome landscape in patients with colon cancer.
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Chen M, Lin W, Li N, Wang Q, Zhu S, Zeng A, Song L. Therapeutic approaches to colorectal cancer via strategies based on modulation of gut microbiota. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:945533. [PMID: 35992678 PMCID: PMC9389535 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.945533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 07/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) ranks third in terms of global incidence and second in terms of death toll among malignant tumors. Gut microbiota are involved in the formation, development, and responses to different treatments of CRC. Under normal physiological conditions, intestinal microorganisms protect the intestinal mucosa, resist pathogen invasion, and regulate the proliferation of intestinal mucosal cells via a barrier effect and inhibition of DNA damage. The composition of gut microbiota and the influences of diet, drugs, and gender on the composition of the intestinal flora are important factors in the early detection of CRC and prediction of the results of CRC treatment. Regulation of gut microbiota is one of the most promising new strategies for CRC treatment, and it is essential to clarify the effect of gut microbiota on CRC and its possible mechanisms to facilitate the prevention and treatment of CRC. This review discusses the role of gut microbiota in the pathogenesis of CRC, the potential of gut microbiota as biomarkers for CRC, and therapeutic approaches to CRC based on the regulation of gut microbiota. It might provide new ideas for the use of gut microbiota in the prevention and treatment of CRC in the near future and thus reduce the incidence of CRC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maohua Chen
- School of Medical and Life Sciences, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Wei Lin
- School of Medical and Life Sciences, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
- School of Medical Technology and Engineering, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Nan Li
- School of Medical and Life Sciences, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Qian Wang
- School of Medical and Life Sciences, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Shaomi Zhu
- School of Medical and Life Sciences, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Anqi Zeng
- Institute of Translational Pharmacology and Clinical Application, Sichuan Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Chengdu, China
- Anqi Zeng,
| | - Linjiang Song
- School of Medical and Life Sciences, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
- *Correspondence: Linjiang Song,
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Jabbari M, Pourmoradian S, Eini-Zinab H, Mosharkesh E, Hosseini Balam F, Yaghmaei Y, Yadegari A, Amini B, Arman Moghadam D, Barati M, Hekmatdoost A. Levels of evidence for the association between different food groups/items consumption and the risk of various cancer sites: an umbrella review. Int J Food Sci Nutr 2022; 73:861-874. [PMID: 35920747 DOI: 10.1080/09637486.2022.2103523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to determine the level of evidence on the association between food groups/items consumption and the risk of different cancer sites from the meta-analyses/pooled analyses of observational studies. A systematic search was executed in Scopus, PubMed/MEDLINE, and Web of Science. The criteria from the World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research (WCRF/AICR) Expert Report were adopted for evidence grading. In summary, there was convincing evidence for the association between fibre intake and decreased risk of colon and breast cancer. Also, consumption of dairy products, milk, fruits, and fibre was associated with a probable decreased risk of breast cancer. Consumption of whole grains, dairy products, milk, fruits, vegetables, and fibre had a probable inverse association with the incidence risk of gastrointestinal tract cancers. More qualified studies are needed to find reliable findings on the association between various food groups/items consumption and the risk of different cancer sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masoumeh Jabbari
- Student Research Committee, Department of Community Nutrition, National Nutrition and Food Technology Research Institute, Faculty of Nutrition and Food Technology, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Samira Pourmoradian
- Nutrition Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Hassan Eini-Zinab
- Department of Community Nutrition, National Nutrition and Food Technology Research Institute; Faculty of Nutrition Sciences and Food Technology, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Erfan Mosharkesh
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Farinaz Hosseini Balam
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Nutrition, Faculty of Nutrition and Food Technology, National Nutrition and Food Technology Research Institute, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Yasaman Yaghmaei
- Department of Nutrition, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Anahita Yadegari
- Department of Nutrition, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Bahareh Amini
- National Nutrition and Food Technology Research Institute, Faculty of Nutrition and Food Technology, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Dorsa Arman Moghadam
- Department of Nutrition, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Meisam Barati
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Nutrition, National Nutrition and Food Technology Research Institute, Faculty of Nutrition and Food Technology, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Azita Hekmatdoost
- Department of Clinical Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Nutrition and Food Technology, National Nutrition and Food Technology Research Institute, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Piawah S, Walker EJ, Van Blarigan EL, Atreya CE. The Gut Microbiome in Colorectal Cancer. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 2022; 36:491-506. [DOI: 10.1016/j.hoc.2022.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Illippangama AU, Jayasena DD, Jo C, Mudannayake DC. Inulin as a functional ingredient and their applications in meat products. Carbohydr Polym 2022; 275:118706. [PMID: 34742431 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.118706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Revised: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Inulin, a fructan-type non-digestible carbohydrate, is a natural functional dietary fiber found in selected plants including chicory, garlic, onion, leeks and asparagus. Due to increasing popularity of inulin and rising awareness toward its low calorie value and prebiotic related health implications, consumers are becoming more conscious on consuming inulin incorporated foods. In this review, the scientific studies published in recent years regarding potential applications of inulin in meat products; and their effects on physicochemical and sensory properties, and health implications are discussed. Meat based functional foods with inulin can lead to enhance digestive health by reducing the risk of diseases like constipation, irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease and colorectal cancer. Inulin can be an interesting prebiotic ingredient in healthier meat formulations, apart from being a fat replacer and dietary fiber enhancer.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dinesh D Jayasena
- Department of Animal Science, Uva Wellassa University, Badulla 90000, Sri Lanka
| | - Cheorun Jo
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Center for Food and Bioconvergence, and Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, South Korea
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Badri DV, Jackson MI, Jewell DE. Dietary Protein and Carbohydrate Levels Affect the Gut Microbiota and Clinical Assessment in Healthy Adult Cats. J Nutr 2021; 151:3637-3650. [PMID: 34587256 PMCID: PMC8643606 DOI: 10.1093/jn/nxab308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Revised: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Relative levels of dietary protein and carbohydrate intake influence microbiota and their functional capabilities, but the effect has not been well documented in cats. OBJECTIVES The impact of 3 foods with different protein:carbohydrate ratios on the gut microbiota and functional attributes in healthy adult cats was evaluated. METHODS Male and female cats (n = 30; mean age: 5.1 y; mean body weight: 5.26 kg) were fed 1 of 3 foods [P28 (28.3% protein, dry matter basis), P35 (35.1%), and P55 (54.8%)] for 90 d in a Williams Latin Square design. Each food had a 1:1 ratio of animal (dried chicken) to plant (pea) protein; protein replaced carbohydrate as protein level increased. Fecal microbiota and their functional capability were assessed with 16S sequencing and the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes database, respectively. RESULTS Fecal pH, ammonia, and branched-chain fatty acids (BCFAs) were higher when cats consumed P55 food than when they consumed P28 and P35. Clear separation of samples between P28 and P55 based on bacterial genera was observed, with partitioning into saccharolytic and proteolytic functions, respectively. Significantly higher α diversity was seen with P55 than with P28 and P35. Amino acid metabolism, mucin foraging pathways, and urea metabolism were higher with P55 than with P28, whereas feces from cats fed P28 had higher concentrations of carbohydrate-active enzymes and enzymes involved in SCFA pathways than with P55. Bacterial genera that showed positive associations with amino acid catabolism also showed positive associations with mucin degradation. CONCLUSIONS Despite higher protein digestibility and less protein arriving to the colon, when healthy adult cats consumed the highest level of protein (P55), their gut microbiota exhibited higher mucin glycan foraging and amino acid metabolism, leading to higher fecal pH, ammonia, and BCFAs. This is likely due to lower availability of carbohydrate substrates and dietary fiber as protein replaced carbohydrate in the food.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Dennis E Jewell
- Department of Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
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Dalal N, Jalandra R, Bayal N, Yadav AK, Sharma M, Makharia GK, Kumar P, Singh R, Solanki PR, Kumar A. Gut microbiota-derived metabolites in CRC progression and causation. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2021; 147:3141-3155. [PMID: 34273006 DOI: 10.1007/s00432-021-03729-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 07/04/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Based on recent research reports, dysbiosis and improper concentrations of microbial metabolites in the gut may result into the carcinogenesis of colorectal cancer. Recent advancement also highlights the involvement of bacteria and their secreted metabolites in the cancer causation. Gut microbial metabolites are functional output of the host-microbiota interactions and produced by anaerobic fermentation of food components in the diet. They contribute to influence variety of biological mechanisms including inflammation, cell signaling, cell-cycle disruption which are majorly disrupted in carcinogenic activities. PURPOSE In this review, we intend to discuss recent updates and possible molecular mechanisms to provide the role of bacterial metabolites, gut bacteria and diet in the colorectal carcinogenesis. Recent evidences have proposed the role of bacteria, such as Fusobacterium nucleaturm, Streptococcus bovis, Helicobacter pylori, Bacteroides fragilis and Clostridium septicum, in the carcinogenesis of CRC. Metagenomic study confirmed that these bacteria are in increased abundance in CRC patient as compared to healthy individuals and can cause inflammation and DNA damage which can lead to development of cancer. These bacteria produce metabolites, such as secondary bile salts from primary bile salts, hydrogen sulfide, trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO), which are likely to promote inflammation and subsequently cancer development. CONCLUSION Recent studies suggest that gut microbiota-derived metabolites have a role in CRC progression and causation and hence, could be implicated in CRC diagnosis, prognosis and therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nishu Dalal
- Gene Regulation Laboratory, National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi, 110067, India
- Department of Environmental Science, Satyawati College, Delhi University, Delhi, 110052, India
| | - Rekha Jalandra
- Gene Regulation Laboratory, National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi, 110067, India
- Department of Zoology, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak, 124001, India
| | - Nitin Bayal
- Gene Regulation Laboratory, National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Amit K Yadav
- Special Centre for Nanoscience, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Minakshi Sharma
- Department of Zoology, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak, 124001, India
| | - Govind K Makharia
- Department of Gastroenterology and Human Nutrition, AIIMS, New Delhi, 110029, India
| | - Pramod Kumar
- Sri Aurobindo College, Delhi University, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Rajeev Singh
- Department of Environmental Science, Satyawati College, Delhi University, Delhi, 110052, India
| | - Pratima R Solanki
- Special Centre for Nanoscience, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India.
| | - Anil Kumar
- Gene Regulation Laboratory, National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi, 110067, India.
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Preventing Colorectal Cancer through Prebiotics. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9061325. [PMID: 34207094 PMCID: PMC8234836 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9061325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2021] [Revised: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC), the third most common cancer in the world, has been recently rising in emerging countries due to environmental and lifestyle factors. Many of these factors are brought up by industrialization, which includes lack of physical activity, poor diet, circadian rhythm disruption, and increase in alcohol consumption. They can increase the risk of CRC by changing the colonic environment and by altering gut microbiota composition, a state referred to as gut dysbiosis. Prebiotics, which are nutrients that can help maintain intestinal microbial homeostasis and mitigate dysbiosis, could be beneficial in preventing inflammation and CRC. These nutrients can hinder the effects of dysbiosis by encouraging the growth of beneficial bacteria involved in short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) production, anti-inflammatory immunity, maintenance of the intestinal epithelial barrier, pro-apoptotic mechanisms, and other cellular mechanisms. This review aims to summarize recent reports about the implication of prebiotics, and probable mechanisms, in the prevention and treatment of CRC. Various experimental studies, specifically in gut microbiome, have effectively demonstrated the protective effect of prebiotics in the progress of CRC. Hence, comprehensive knowledge is urgent to understand the clinical applications of prebiotics in the prevention or treatment of CRC.
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