Immune checkpoint inhibitors use and effects on prognosis of COVID-19 infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis

PD-L1: From cancer immunotherapy to therapeutic implications in multiple disorders

The PD-L1/PD-1 signaling pathway is the gold standard for cancer immunotherapy. Therapeutic antibodies targeting PD-1, such as nivolumab (Opdivo) and pembrolizumab (Keytruda), and PD-L1, including atezolizumab (Tecentriq), durvalumab (Imfinzi), and avelumab (Bavencio) have received Food and Drug Administration approval and are currently being used to treat various cancers. Traditionally, PD-L1 is known as an immune checkpoint protein that binds to the PD-1 receptor on its surface to inhibit the activity of T cells, which are the primary effector cells in antitumor immunity. However, it also plays a role in cancer progression, which goes beyond traditional understanding. Here, we highlight the multifaceted mechanisms of action of PD-L1 in cancer cell proliferation, transcriptional regulation, and systemic immune suppression. Moreover, we consider the potential role of PD-L1 in the development and pathogenesis of diseases other than cancer, explore PD-L1-focused therapeutic approaches for these diseases, and assess their clinical relevance. Through this review, we hope to provide deeper insights into the PD-L1/PD-1 signaling pathway and present a broad perspective on potential therapeutic approaches for cancer and other diseases.

Toxicity profiles of immune checkpoint inhibitors in nervous system cancer: a comprehensive disproportionality analysis using FDA adverse event reporting system

BACKGROUND

Immune-related adverse events (irAEs) always occur during treatment with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). Patients with nervous system cancer (NSC) may gain clinical benefit from ICIs, but irAEs in NSC patients are rarely examined. Therefore, our study systematically summarized reports of irAEs in NSC.

METHODS

We obtained information from the FDA adverse event reporting system from the first quarter (Q1) of 2013 to the fourth quarter (Q4) of 2022. We examined use of a combination of ICIs and chemotherapy (ICI_Chemo) or chemotherapy only (ICI_Chemo) for patients with NSC. Multiple disproportionality analyses were applied to assess irAEs. Multiomics data from the gene expression omnibus (GEO) database were analyzed to explore potential molecular mechanisms associated with irAEs in NSC patients.

RESULTS

Fourteen irAEs were identified in 8,357 NSC patients after removing duplicates; the top five events were seizure, confused state, encephalopathy, muscular weakness and gait disturbance. Older patients were more likely to develop irAEs than were younger patients. From the start of ICIs_Chemo to irAE occurrence, there was a significant difference in the time to onset of irAEs between age groups. irAEs may occur via mechanisms involving the inflammatory response, secretion of inflammatory mediators, and aberrant activation of pathologic pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

This study helps to characterize irAEs in NSC patients treated with ICIs. We combined GEO database analysis to explore the potential molecular mechanisms of irAEs. The results of this study provide a basis for improving the toxic effects of ICIs in NSC patients.

Different Prognostic Role of Soluble PD-L1 in the Course of Severe and Non-Severe COVID-19

Understanding the link between COVID-19 and patient immune characteristics is crucial. We previously demonstrated that high levels of the soluble Programmed Death-Ligand1 (sPD-L1) at the beginning of the infection correlated with low lymphocyte number and high C-reactive protein (CRP), longer length of stay (LOS), and death. This study investigated whether sPD-L1 can be a prognosis biomarker during COVID-19. Severe and non-severe COVID-19 patients were enrolled at the University Hospital of Salerno. During hospitalization, at admission, and after 12-14 days, patients' data were collected, and sPD-L1 levels were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The peripheral lymphocyte number negatively correlated with the time of negativization (p = 0.006), length of stay (LOS) (p = 0.032), and CRP (p = 0.004), while sPD-L1 positively correlated with LOS (p = 0.015). Patients with increased sPD-L1 and lymphocyte number showed a shorter LOS than those with decreased sPD-L1 and lymphocyte number (p = 0.038) and those with increased sPD-L1 and decreased lymphocyte number (p = 0.025). Moreover, patients with increased sPD-L1 and decreased CRP had a shorter LOS than those with increased sPD-L1 and CRP (p = 0.034) and those with decreased sPD-L1 and CRP (p = 0.048). In conclusion, while at an early phase of COVID-19, sPD-L1 promotes an immune escape, later, it might act to dampen an excessive immune response, proving its role in COVID-19 prognosis.

COVID-19 Outcomes in Patients with Cancer Receiving Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors: A Systematic Review

Introduction

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) can cause inflammatory and immune-related adverse events (irAEs) that might worsen the course of COVID-19. We conducted a systematic review (PROSPERO ID: CRD42022307545) to evaluate the clinical course and complications of COVID-19 in patients with cancer receiving ICI.

Methods

We searched Medline and Embase through January 5, 2022. We included studies evaluating patients with cancer who received ICI and developed COVID-19. Outcomes included mortality, severe COVID-19, intensive care unit (ICU) and hospital admissions, irAEs, and serious adverse events. We pooled data with random effects meta-analysis.

Results

Twenty-five studies met study eligibility (n = 36,532 patients: 15,497 had COVID-19 and 3220 received ICI). Most studies (71.4%) had a high risk of comparability bias. There were no significant differences in mortality (relative risk [RR] 1.29; 95% CI 0.62-2.69), ICU admission (RR 1.20; 95% CI 0.71-2.00), and hospital admission (RR 0.91; 95% CI 0.79-1.06) when comparing patients treated with ICI with patients without cancer treatment. When pooling adjusted odds ratios (ORs), no statistically significant differences were observed in mortality (OR 0.95; 95% CI 0.57-1.60), severe COVID-19 (OR 1.05; 95% CI 0.45-2.46), or hospital admission (OR 2.02; 95% CI 0.96-4.27), when comparing patients treated with ICIs versus patients with cancer without ICI therapy. No significant differences were observed when comparing clinical outcomes in patients receiving ICIs versus patients receiving any of the other anticancer therapies.

Conclusion

Although current evidence is limited, COVID-19 clinical outcomes of patients with cancer receiving ICI therapy appear to be similar to those not receiving oncologic treatment or other cancer therapies.

Clinical predictors of Covid-19 mortality in a tertiary hospital in Lagos, Nigeria: A retrospective cohort study

Background

The predictors of mortality among patients presenting with severe to critical disease in Nigeria are presently unknown.

Aim

The aim of this study was to identify the predictors of mortality among patients with COVID-19 presenting for admission in a tertiary referral hospital in Lagos, Nigeria.

Patients and Methods

The study was a retrospective study. Patients' sociodemographics, clinical characteristics, comorbidities, complications, treatment outcomes, and hospital duration were documented. Pearson's Chi-square, Fischer's Exact test, or Student's t-test were used to assess the relationship between the variables and mortality. To compare the survival experience across medical comorbidities, Kaplan Meir plots and life tables were used. Univariable and multivariable Cox-proportional hazard analyses were conducted.

Results

A total of 734 patients were recruited. Participants' age ranged from five months to 92 years, with a mean ± SD of 47.4 ± 17.2 years, and a male preponderance (58.5% vs. 41.5%). The mortality rate was 9.07 per thousand person-days. About 73.9% (n = 51/69) of the deceased had one or more co-morbidities, compared to 41.6% (252/606) of those discharged. Patients who were older than 50 years, with diabetes mellitus, hypertension, chronic renal illness, and cancer had a statistically significant relationship with mortality.

Conclusion

These findings call for a more comprehensive approach to the control of non-communicable diseases, the allocation of sufficient resources for ICU care during outbreaks, an improvement in the quality of health care available to Nigerians, and further research into the relationship between obesity and COVID-19 in Nigerians.

A Review of RRx-001: A Late-Stage Multi-Indication Inhibitor of NLRP3 Activation and Chronic Inflammation

Chronic unresolving inflammation is emerging as a key underlying pathological feature of many if not most diseases ranging from autoimmune conditions to cardiometabolic and neurological disorders. Dysregulated immune and inflammasome activation is thought to be the central driver of unresolving inflammation, which in some ways provides a unified theory of disease pathology and progression. Inflammasomes are a group of large cytosolic protein complexes that, in response to infection- or stress-associated stimuli, oligomerize and assemble to generate a platform for driving inflammation. This occurs through proteolytic activation of caspase-1-mediated inflammatory responses, including cleavage and secretion of the proinflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18, and initiation of pyroptosis, an inflammatory form of cell death. Several inflammasomes have been characterized. The most well-studied is the nucleotide-binding domain (NOD)-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, so named because the NLRP3 protein in the complex, which is primarily present in immune and inflammatory cells following activation by inflammatory stimuli, belongs to the family of nucleotide-binding and oligomerization domain (Nod) receptor proteins. Several NLRP3 inflammasome inhibitors are in development, all with multi-indication activity. This review discusses the current status, known mechanisms of action, and disease-modifying therapeutic potential of RRx-001, a direct NLRP3 inflammasome inhibitor under investigation in several late-stage anticancer clinical trials, including a phase 3 trial for the treatment of third-line and beyond small cell lung cancer (SCLC), an indication with no treatment, in which RRx-001 is combined with reintroduced chemotherapy from the first line, carboplatin/cisplatin and etoposide (ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03699956). Studies from multiple independent groups have now confirmed that RRx-001 is safe and well tolerated in humans. Additionally, emerging evidence in preclinical animal models suggests that RRx-001 could be effective in a wide range of diseases where immune and inflammasome activation drives disease pathology.

Immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy and elevated levels of C-reactive protein associated with COVID-19 aggravation in patients with lung cancer

BACKGROUND

COVID-19 has become a significant health threat and a primary healthcare concern among the most vulnerable patients with cancer. Patients with COVID-19 who have lung cancer are at great risk and need careful monitoring if they are affected. This study aimed to investigate the clinical characteristics of COVID-19-positive patients with lung cancer and the risks associated with anticancer medication.

METHODS

This study was a single-center, retrospective cohort study. Patients with lung cancer who presented with COVID-19 during hospitalization were divided into two groups: those who presented with respiratory failure and those who did not. The patient's background, clinical laboratory values, and anticancer drugs used for therapy were investigated to identify risk factors for respiratory failure.

RESULTS

Thirty-one patients were included in the study; 18 (58.1%) were in the respiratory failure group and 13 (41.9%) were in the group without respiratory failure. In the respiratory failure group, there was a significant difference in using immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) use within 90 days (p = 0.025) and the level of C-reactive protein (CRP) level (p = 0.017). The analysis of the operating characteristic of the receiver revealed a cutoff value of 2.75 mg/dL for CRP (area under the curve = 0.744, sensitivity 0.611, specificity 0.923).

CONCLUSIONS

A history of ICI within 90 days and elevated CRP (≥ 2.75 mg/dL) levels are potential factors leading to respiratory failure in COVID-19-affected patients undergoing chemotherapy for lung cancer.

Comprehensive adjusted outcome data are needed to assess the impact of immune checkpoint inhibitors in cancer patients with COVID-19: Results of a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Determining how prior immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) therapy influences outcomes in cancer patients presenting with COVID-19 is essential for patient management but must account for confounding variables.

METHODS

We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies reporting adjusted effects of ICIs on survival, severe events, or hospitalisation in cancer patients with COVID-19 based on variables including age, gender, diabetes mellitus, hypertension (HTN), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and other comorbidities. When adjusted effects were unavailable, unadjusted data were analysed.

RESULTS

Of 42 observational studies (38 retrospective), 7 reported adjusted outcomes for ICIs and 2 provided sufficient individual patient data to calculate adjusted outcomes. In eight studies, adjusted outcomes were based on ≤7 variables. Over all studies, only one included >100 ICI patients while 26 included <10. ICIs did not alter the odds ratio (95%CI) (OR) of death significantly (random effects model), across adjusted (n = 8) [1.31 (0.58-2.95) p = 0.46; I2  = 42%, p = 0.10], unadjusted (n = 30) [1.06 (0.85-1.32) p = 0.58; I2  = 0%, p = 0.76] or combined [1.09 (0.88;1.36) p = 0.41; I2  = 0%, p = 0.5)] studies. Similarly, ICIs did not alter severe events significantly across adjusted (n = 5) [1.20 (0.30-4.74) p = 0.73; I2  = 52%, p = 0.08], unadjusted (n = 19) [(1.23 (0.87-1.75) p = 0.23; I2  = 16%, p = 0.26] or combined [1.26 (0.90-1.77) p = 0.16; I2  = 25%, p = 0.14] studies. Two studies provided adjusted hospitalisation data and when combined with 13 unadjusted studies, ICIs did not alter hospitalisation significantly [1.19 (0.85-1.68) p = 029; I2  = 5%, p = 0.40]. Results of sensitivity analyses examining ICI effects based on 5 variables were inconclusive. Certainty of evidence was very low.

CONCLUSIONS

Across studies with adjusted and unadjusted results, ICIs did not alter outcomes significantly. But studies with comprehensive adjusted outcome data controlling for confounding variables are necessary to determine whether ICIs impact COVID-19 outcomes in cancer patients.

COVID-19 Outcomes in Stage IV Cancer Patients Receiving Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors

Cancer patients are a vulnerable population in the current coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak. The impact of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) on the outcomes of COVID-19 infection in cancer patients remains largely unclear. We retrospectively investigated all solid cancer patients who received at least one cycle of ICIs at a single institution between August 2020 and August 2021. All stage IV solid cancer patients who were on or ceased ICI treatment when diagnosed with COVID-19 were eligible. All COVID-19 infections were confirmed by RT-PCR. Risk factors for hospitalization, severe symptoms, and death were analyzed. A total of 56 patients were included in our study. Twenty (35.7%) patients require hospitalization, 12 (21.4%) developed severe symptoms, and 10 (17.9%) died from COVID-19 infection. ICI treatment was interrupted in 37 patients (66.1%), 24 of whom (64.9%) had treatment resumed. Eight (80%) COVID-19-related death occurred in unvaccinated individuals. Reinfection occurred in seven patients (12.5%), and three of them died from their second COVID-19 infection. Factors associated with hospitalization were high Charlson comorbidity score (OR 1.56, 95% CI 1.10–2.23, p = 0.01) and lymphocyte ≤ 1500 mm³ (OR 10.05, 95% CI 2.03–49.85, p = 0.005). Age, chemoimmunotherapy, and ICI treatment duration were not associated with increased risk of hospitalization, severe symptoms, or COVID-19-related mortality. ICI therapy does not impose an increased risk for severe COVID-19 infection in stage IV cancer patients. Vaccination should be encouraged among this population. Clinicians should be cognizant of a potential worse outcome in COVID-19-reinfected patients.

COVID-19 and Cancer: Special Considerations for Patients Receiving Immunotherapy and Immunosuppressive Cancer Therapies

Patients with cancer generally have a higher risk of adverse outcomes from COVID-19, with higher age, male sex, poor performance status, cancer type, and uncontrolled malignant disease as the main risk factors. However, the influence of specific cancer therapies varies and raises concerns during the pandemic. In patients undergoing cancer immunotherapy or other immunosuppressive cancer treatments, we summarize the evidence on outcomes from COVID-19; address the safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy of COVID-19 vaccination; and review COVID-19 antiviral therapeutics for the patient with cancer. Despite higher mortality for patients with cancer, treatment with immune checkpoint inhibitors does not seem to increase mortality risk based on observational evidence. Inhibitory therapies directed toward B-cell lineages, including monoclonal antibodies against CD20 and CAR T-cell therapies, are associated with poor outcomes in COVID-19; however, the data are sparse. Regarding vaccination in patients receiving immune checkpoint inhibitors, clinical efficacy comparable to that in the general population can be expected. In patients undergoing B-cell-depleting therapy, immunogenicity and clinical efficacy are curtailed, but vaccination is not futile, which is thought to be due to the cellular response. Vaccine reactogenicity and toxicity in all groups of patients with cancer are comparable to that of the general population. Preexposure prophylaxis with monoclonal antibodies directed against the viral spike may provide passive immunity for those not likely to mount an adequate vaccine response. If infected, prompt treatment with monoclonal antibodies or oral small molecule antivirals is beneficial, though with oral antiviral therapies, care must be taken to avoid drug interactions in patients with cancer.

Beyond GWAS-Could Genetic Differentiation within the Allograft Rejection Pathway Shape Natural Immunity to COVID-19?

COVID-19 infections pose a serious global health concern so it is crucial to identify the biomarkers for the susceptibility to and resistance against this disease that could help in a rapid risk assessment and reliable decisions being made on patients' treatment and their potential hospitalisation. Several studies investigated the factors associated with severe COVID-19 outcomes that can be either environmental, population based, or genetic. It was demonstrated that the genetics of the host plays an important role in the various immune responses and, therefore, there are different clinical presentations of COVID-19 infection. In this study, we aimed to use variant descriptive statistics from GWAS (Genome-Wide Association Study) and variant genomic annotations to identify metabolic pathways that are associated with a severe COVID-19 infection as well as pathways related to resistance to COVID-19. For this purpose, we applied a custom-designed mixed linear model implemented into custom-written software. Our analysis of more than 12.5 million SNPs did not indicate any pathway that was significant for a severe COVID-19 infection. However, the Allograft rejection pathway (hsa05330) was significant (p = 0.01087) for resistance to the infection. The majority of the 27 SNP marking genes constituting the Allograft rejection pathway were located on chromosome 6 (19 SNPs) and the remainder were mapped to chromosomes 2, 3, 10, 12, 20, and X. This pathway comprises several immune system components crucial for the self versus non-self recognition, but also the components of antiviral immunity. Our study demonstrated that not only single variants are important for resistance to COVID-19, but also the cumulative impact of several SNPs within the same pathway matters.

COVID-19 immunotherapy: Treatment based on the immune cell-mediated approaches

Multiple efforts are currently underway to control and treat severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), causing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) worldwide. Despite all efforts, the virus that emerged in Wuhan city has rapidly spread globally and led to a public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC) due to the lack of approved antiviral therapy. Nevertheless, SARS-CoV-2 has had a significant influence on the evolution of cellular therapeutic approaches. Adoptive immune cell therapy is innovative and offers either promising prophylactic or therapy for patients with moderate-to-severe COVID-19. This approach is aimed at developing safety and providing secure and effective therapy in combination with standard therapy for all COVID-19 infected individuals. Based on the effective results of previous studies on both inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, various immune cell therapies against COVID-19 have been reviewed and discussed. It must be considered that the application of cell therapy for treatment and to eliminate infected respiratory cells could result in excessive inflammation, so this treatment must be used in combination with other treatments, despite its many beneficial efforts.

The Role of Immune Regulatory Molecules in COVID-19

As the fifth pandemic in the 21st century, coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has become the most prominent global concern in the last 2 years. Variable manifestations characterize SARS-CoV-2 infection. Despite the design and production of effective vaccines and their considerable effect on reducing the COVID-19 prevalence and mortality rate, no definitive cure for the disease has yet been found. Mutations may also affect the effectiveness of vaccines. The host immune response to the pathogen has a critical role in the course of the disease. Positive and negative signals often balance the immune system. Immune regulatory molecules, also known as immune checkpoint receptors, balance the immune responses. These molecules mainly have inhibitory functions and prevent hyperactivation of immune cells or trigger adverse signaling pathways. For a decade, the immune checkpoint blockade, as a therapeutic target for cancer immunotherapy, has been utilized. Some of the inhibitory receptors are recognized as exhaustion markers on T cells. The signaling pathway of these markers restricts the function of T cells against viral infection. Dysregulation of T cells was observed in SARS-CoV-2 infection and can modify proliferation, differentiation, cytokine production, and type of response. The pivotal role of immune inhibitory receptors in the function of acquired, cell-mediated, immune defense T cells makes them a fascinating subject to study. This review article summarized recent findings on immune regulatory molecules and their role in SARS-CoV-2 infection, hoping to find a way to design novel treatments.

Learning through a Pandemic: The Current State of Knowledge on COVID-19 and Cancer

The ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has left patients with current or past history of cancer facing disparate consequences at every stage of the cancer trajectory. This comprehensive review offers a landscape analysis of the current state of the literature on COVID-19 and cancer, including the immune response to COVID-19, risk factors for severe disease, and impact of anticancer therapies. We also review the latest data on treatment of COVID-19 and vaccination safety and efficacy in patients with cancer, as well as the impact of the pandemic on cancer care, including the urgent need for rapid evidence generation and real-world study designs. SIGNIFICANCE: Patients with cancer have faced severe consequences at every stage of the cancer journey due to the COVID-19 pandemic. This comprehensive review offers a landscape analysis of the current state of the field regarding COVID-19 and cancer. We cover the immune response, risk factors for severe disease, and implications for vaccination in patients with cancer, as well as the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cancer care delivery. Overall, this review provides an in-depth summary of the key issues facing patients with cancer during this unprecedented health crisis.

Cardiotoxicity in cancer immune-checkpoint therapy: Mechanisms, clinical evidence, and management strategies

Immune-checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), a unique antibody-based therapeutic strategy, have revolutionized the treatment landscape of solid and hematological cancers. Despite the proven benefits of ICIs, the cardiotoxicity from unspecific immune activation (uncommon but potentially fatal) is a continuing concern. Accumulating preclinical research has demonstrated that ICIs initiate inflammation in the myocardium, while clinically significant cardiotoxicity were reported in few patients receiving ICI therapy, probably due to the low incidence and unspecific symptoms. The subtle signs and symptoms (e.g., chest pain, dizziness, and dyspnea) were likely attributed to cancer and/or non-cardiac events by previous studies, thus limiting the understanding of the incidence, outcomes, risk factors, and management of ICI-related cardiotoxicity. The heterogeneous clinical presentation and complex diagnostic procedure further make it challenging to accurately identify ICI-related cardiac events in clinical trials. Therefore, ICI-related cardiotoxicity, whose incidence is probably underestimated, has not been well recognized. In this article, we provide an overview of potential mechanisms underlying ICI-related cardiotoxicity and review accumulating clinical evidence of ICI-related cardiotoxicity, with a focus on myocarditis. Moreover, we discuss possible strategies to manage ICI-related cardiotoxicity and highlight the importance of developing cardio-oncology.