Delivery of therapeutics using nanocarriers for targeting cancer cells and cancer stem cells

Functionalized lipid-based drug delivery nanosystems for the treatment of human infectious diseases

Infectious diseases are still public health problems. Microorganisms such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, and parasites are the main causing agents related to these diseases. In this context, the search for new effective strategies in prevention and/or treatment is considered essential, since current drugs often have side effects or end up, causing microbial resistance, making it a serious health problem. As an alternative to these limitations, nanotechnology has been widely used. The use of lipid-based drug delivery nanosystems (DDNs) has some advantages, such as biocompatibility, low toxicity, controlled release, the ability to carry both hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs, in addition to be easel scalable. Besides, as an improvement, studies involving the conjugation of signalling molecules on the surfaces of these nanocarriers can allow the target of certain tissues or cells. Thus, this review summarizes the performance of functionalized lipid-based DDNs for the treatment of infectious diseases caused by viruses, including SARS-CoV-2, bacteria, fungi, and parasites.

Intraductal delivery of nanocarriers for ductal carcinoma in situ treatment: a strategy to enhance localized delivery

Ductal carcinoma in situ describes the most commonly occurring, noninvasive malignant breast disease, which could be the leading factor in invasive breast cancer. Despite remarkable advancements in treatment options, poor specificity, low bioavailability and dose-induced toxicity of chemotherapy are the main constraint. A unique characteristic of nanocarriers may overcome these problems. Moreover, the intraductal route of administration serves as an alternative approach. The direct nanodrug delivery into mammary ducts results in the accumulation of anticancer agents at targeted tissue for a prolonged period with high permeability, significantly decreasing the tumor size and improving the survival rate. This review focuses mainly on the intraductal delivery of nanocarriers in treating ductal carcinoma in situ, together with potential clinical translational research.

EGF Receptor-Targeting Cancer Therapy Using CD47-Engineered Cell-Derived Nanoplatforms

Introduction

Avoiding phagocytic cells and reducing off-target toxicity are the primary hurdles in the clinical application of nanoparticles containing therapeutics. For overcoming these errors, in this study, nanoparticles expressing CD47 proteins inhibiting the phagocytic attack of immune cells were prepared and then evaluated as an anti-cancer drug delivery vehicle.

Methods

The CD47+ cell-derived nanoparticles (CDNs) were prepared from the plasma membranes of human embryonic kidney cells transfected with a plasmid encoding CD47. And the doxorubicin (DOX) was loaded into the CDNs, and anti-EGF receptor (EGFR) antibodies were conjugated to the surface of the CDNs to target tumors overexpressing EGFR.

Results

The CD47+iCDNs-DOX was successfully synthesized having a stable structure. The CD47+CDNs were taken up less by RAW264.7 macrophages compared to control CDNs. Anti-EGFR CD47+CDNs (iCDNs) selectively recognized EGFR-positive MDA-MB-231 cells in vitro and accumulated more effectively in the target tumor xenografts in mice. Moreover, iCDNs encapsulating doxorubicin (iCDNs-DOX) exhibited the highest suppression of tumor growth in mice, presumably due to the enhanced DOX delivery to tumor tissues, compared to non-targeting CDNs or CD47- iCDNs.

Discussion

These results suggest that the clinical application of biocompatible cell membrane-derived nanocarriers could be facilitated by functionalization with macrophage-avoiding CD47 and tumor-targeting antibodies.

Local delivery and controlled release of miR-34a loaded in hydroxyapatite/mesoporous organosilica nanoparticles composite-coated implant wire to accelerate bone fracture healing

Immediate mechanical stability is a prerequisite for fracture healing. In addition to bringing immediate mechanical stability in fracture site, implants with bioactive coating can release active substance to accelerate bone-fracture healing. However, limited drug-loading capacity of established coatings weakens their biological functions, which urges the engineering of more effective coating biomaterials for accelerating fracture healing. Herein, mesoporous organosilica nanoparticles (MONs), as miR-34a delivers, are loaded onto hydroxyapatite (HA)-coated Kirschner wire to engineer a HA/MONs@miR-34a composite coating. The composite coating can effectively deliver miR-34a into osteoclasts, generate gene dose-dependent inhibiting effect on differentiation and resorptive activity of osteoclasts by regulating multiple downstream gene expression at the early stage of fracture healing, which additionally exhibits decent bone regeneration potentials as evidenced in rat tibial fracture model. In particular, differentially expressed genes regulated by miR-34a are identified using RNA-seq followed by bioinformatics analysis. Functional enrichment analysis reveals that genes with altered expression mainly distribute in mainly distribute in DNA replication and cell cycle, which are associated with the development of osteoclasts. This work not only demonstrates the high clinical translation potential of HA/MONs@miR-34a to accelerate fracture healing, but also reveals the underlying molecular mechanism of regulating physiological functions of osteoclasts based on analysis of singlecell RNA sequencing.

Nanotheranostics With the Combination of Improved Targeting, Therapeutic Effects, and Molecular Imaging

There is an increasing interest in the design of targeted carrier systems with combined therapeutic and diagnostic modalities. Therapeutic modalities targeting tumors with single ligand-based targeting nanocarriers are insufficient for proficient delivery and for targeting two different surface receptors that are overexpressed in cancer cells. Here, we evaluated an activated nanoparticle delivery system comprising fucoidan/hyaluronic acid to improve therapeutic efficacy. The system comprised polyethylene glycol-gelatin-encapsulated epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), poly (D,L-lactide-co-glycolide; PLGA), and stable iron oxide nanoparticles (IOs). The latter enables targeting of prostate cancers in their molecular images. We demonstrate the transfer of nanoparticles and their entry into prostate cancer cells through ligand-specific recognition. This system may prove the benefits of drug delivery that enhances the inhibition of cell growth through apoptosis induction. Moreover, the improved targeting of nanotheranostics significantly suppressed orthotopic prostate tumor growth and more accurately targeted tumors compared with systemic combination therapy. In the presence of nanoparticles with iron oxides, the hypointensity of the prostate tumor was visualized on a T2-weignted magnetic resonance image. The diagnostic ability of this system was demonstrated by accumulating fluorescent nanoparticles in the prostate tumor from the in vivo imaging system, computed tomography. It is suggested that theranostic nanoparticles combined with a molecular imaging system can be a promising cancer therapy in the future.

Silver nanoparticles for delivery purposes

The synthesis of nanostructured materials can be considered a research field of high importance, especially in the recent past, due to the unique properties that make these materials applicable in different fields of science and technology. Metallic nanoparticles gained significant interest due to the possibility to obtain them through biological means, among other techniques. Silver nanoparticles are some of the most investigated metallic nanoparticles, due to their recognized anticancer, antimicrobial, and antiviral potential. This chapter aims to summarize the emerging efforts to address current challenges and solutions in the treatment of infectious diseases, particularly through the use of silver nanoparticles biosynthesized via microbes and plants pathways.

Coordination-Driven Self-Assembly of Triazole-Based Apoptosis-Inducible Metallomacrocycles

Ru(II)-metallomacrocycles containing 4-pyridyl-1,2,3-triazole moiety were realized by coordination-driven self-assembly. All new compounds were characterized by electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry, elemental analysis, and 1H and 13C NMR spectroscopic techniques. The molecular structure of metallomacrocycle 8 was determined by single-crystal X-ray crystallography. The anticancer activities of metallomacrocycles 5-8 were evaluated by cytotoxicity, cell cycle analysis, and related protein expression. Metallomacrocycle 7 showed the highest cytotoxicity in HepG2 human hepatocellular carcinoma cells. In addition, apoptotic HepG2 cells were analyzed when metallomacrocycle 7 was treated. Our results suggest that metallomacrocycle 7 induces liver cancer cell death by increasing apoptosis and cell cycle arrest and that it has potential use as an agent for the treatment of human hepatocellular carcinoma.

New Self-assembled Supramolecular Bowls as Potent Anticancer Agents for Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma

We report herein on the design, synthesis and biological activity of Ru-based self-assembled supramolecular bowls as a potent anticancer therapeutic in human hepatocellular cancer. The potent complex induces production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by higher fatty acid β-oxidation and down-regulation of glucose transporter-mediated pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 1 via reduced hypoxia-inducible factor 1α. Also, overexpressed acetyl-CoA activates the tricarboxylic acid cycle and the electron transport system and induces hypergeneration of ROS. Finally, ROS overexpressed through this pathway leads to apoptosis. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the naphthalene derived molecular bowl activates classical apoptosis via crosstalk between the extrinsic and intrinsic signal pathway. Our work into the mechanism of Ru-based self-assembled supramolecular bowls can provide valuable insight into the potential for use as a promising anticancer agent.

Nanoparticles of Titanium and Zinc Oxides as Novel Agents in Tumor Treatment: a Review

Cancer has become a global problem. On all continents, a great number of people are diagnosed with this disease. In spite of the progress in medical care, cancer still ends fatal for a great number of the ill, either as a result of a late diagnosis or due to inefficiency of therapies. The majority of the tumors are resistant to drugs. Thus, the search for new, more effective therapy methods continues. Recently, nanotechnology has been attributed with big expectations in respect of the cancer fight. That interdisciplinary field of science creates nanomaterials (NMs) and nanoparticles (NPs) that can be applied, e.g., in nanomedicine. NMs and NPs are perceived as very promising in cancer therapy since they can perform as drug carriers, as well as photo- or sonosensitizers (compounds that generate the formation of reactive oxygen species as a result of either electromagnetic radiation excitation with an adequate wavelength or ultrasound activation, respectively). Consequently, two new treatment modalities, the photodynamic therapy (PDT) and the sonodynamic therapy (SDT) have been created. The attachment of ligands or antibodies to NMs or to NPs improve their selective distribution into the targeted organ or cell; hence, the therapy effectiveness can be improved. An important advantage of the targeted tumor treatment is lowering the cyto- and genotoxicity of active substance towards healthy cells. Therefore, both PDT and SDT constitute a valuable alternative to chemo- or radiotherapy. The vital role in cancer eradication is attributed to two inorganic sensitizers in their nanosized scale: titanium dioxide and zinc oxide.

Human Adipose-Derived Stem Cells Labeled with Plasmonic Gold Nanostars for Cellular Tracking and Photothermal Cancer Cell Ablation

BACKGROUND

Gold nanostars are unique nanoplatforms that can be imaged in real time and transform light energy into heat to ablate cells. Adipose-derived stem cells migrate toward tumor niches in response to chemokines. The ability of adipose-derived stem cells to migrate and integrate into tumors makes them ideal vehicles for the targeted delivery of cancer nanotherapeutics.

METHODS

To test the labeling efficiency of gold nanostars, undifferentiated adipose-derived stem cells were incubated with gold nanostars and a commercially available nanoparticle (Qtracker), then imaged using two-photon photoluminescence microscopy. The effects of gold nanostars on cell phenotype, proliferation, and viability were assessed with flow cytometry, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazolyl-2)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide metabolic assay, and trypan blue, respectively. Trilineage differentiation of gold nanostar-labeled adipose-derived stem cells was induced with the appropriate media. Photothermolysis was performed on adipose-derived stem cells cultured alone or in co-culture with SKBR3 cancer cells.

RESULTS

Efficient uptake of gold nanostars occurred in adipose-derived stem cells, with persistence of the luminescent signal over 4 days. Labeling efficiency and signal quality were greater than with Qtracker. Gold nanostars did not affect cell phenotype, viability, or proliferation, and exhibited stronger luminescence than Qtracker throughout differentiation. Zones of complete ablation surrounding the gold nanostar-labeled adipose-derived stem cells were observed following photothermolysis in both monoculture and co-culture models.

CONCLUSIONS

Gold nanostars effectively label adipose-derived stem cells without altering cell phenotype. Once labeled, photoactivation of gold nanostar-labeled adipose-derived stem cells ablates neighboring cancer cells, demonstrating the potential of adipose-derived stem cells as a vehicle for the delivery of site-specific cancer therapy.

pH-Sensitive Pt Nanocluster Assembly Overcomes Cisplatin Resistance and Heterogeneous Stemness of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Response rates to conventional chemotherapeutics remain unsatisfactory for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) due to the high rates of chemoresistance and recurrence. Tumor-initiating cancer stem-like cells (CSLCs) are refractory to chemotherapy, and their enrichment leads to subsequent development of chemoresistance and recurrence. To overcome the chemoresistance and stemness in HCC, we synthesized a Pt nanocluster assembly (Pt-NA) composed of assembled Pt nanoclusters incorporating a pH-sensitive polymer and HCC-targeting peptide. Pt-NA is latent in peripheral blood, readily targets disseminated HCC CSLCs, and disassembles into small Pt nanoclusters in acidic subcellular compartments, eventually inducing damage to DNA. Furthermore, treatment with Pt-NA downregulates a multitude of genes that are vital for the proliferation of HCC. Importantly, CD24+ side population (SP) CSLCs that are resistant to cisplatin are sensitive to Pt-NA, demonstrating the immense potential of Pt-NA for treating chemoresistant HCC.

Coordination-Driven Self-Assembly and Anticancer Potency Studies of Ruthenium-Cobalt-Based Heterometallic Rectangles

Three new cobalt-ruthenium heterometallic molecular rectangles, 1-3, were synthesized through the coordination-driven self-assembly of a new cobalt sandwich donor, (η⁵ -Cp)Co[C₄ -trans-Ph₂ (4-Py)₂ ] (L; Cp: cyclopentyl; Py: pyridine), and one of three dinuclear precursors, [(p-cymene)₂ Ru₂ (OO∩OO)₂ Cl₂ ] [OO∩OO: oxalato (A₁ ), 5,8-dioxido-1,4-naphthoquinone (A₂ ), or 6,11-dioxido-5,12-naphthacenedione (A₃ )]. All of the self-assembled architectures were isolated in very good yield (92-94 %) and were fully characterized by spectroscopic analysis; the molecular structures of 2 and 3 were determined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. The anticancer activities of bimetallic rectangles 1-3 were evaluated with a 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay, an autophagy assay, and Western blotting. Rectangles 1-3 showed higher cytotoxicity than doxorubicin in AGS human gastric carcinoma cells. In addition, the autophagic activities and apoptotic cell death ratios were increased in AGS cells by treatment with 1-3; the rectangles induced autophagosome formation by promoting LC3-I to LC3-II conversion and apoptotic cell death by increasing caspase-3/7 activity. Our results suggest that rectangles 1-3 induce gastric cancer cell death by modulating autophagy and apoptosis and that they have potential use as agents for the treatment of human gastric cancer.

SWCNTs as novel theranostic nanocarriers for cancer diagnosis and therapy: towards safe translation to the clinics

With their unique physicochemical properties, single walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) hold great promise for applications as drug delivery systems (DDS) for early and better diagnosis and therapy of cancer. While several in vitro and in vivo studies have validated their potential benefit, no SWCNT-based formulation has yet reached clinical trials. Towards prospective safe clinical applications, the main properties that were adopted to enhance the biocompatibility of SWCNTs were highlighted. Then, the recent progresses in the in vivo applications of SWCNTs as diagnostic nanoprobes using multimodality imaging techniques and as therapeutic nanocarriers delivering wide range of anticancer efficient drugs to tumors were reviewed. Finally, the efforts required for safe clinical applications of SWCNTs as DDS for cancer diagnosis and therapy were discussed.

Hurdles in selection process of nanodelivery systems for multidrug-resistant cancer

PURPOSE

Most of the nanomedicines for treatment of multidrug-resistant cancer do not reach Phase III trials and many are terminated or withdrawn or are in an indeterminate state since long without any study results being presented. Extensive perusal of nanomedicine development research revealed that one of the critical aspects influencing clinical outcomes and which requires diligent scrutiny is selection process of nanodelivery system.

METHODS

Research papers and articles published on development of nanodelivery systems for treatment of multidrug-resistant cancer were analyzed. Observations and conclusions noted by these researchers which might shed some light on poor clinical performance of nanocarriers were collated and summarized under observation section. Further research articles were studied to find possible solutions which may be applied to these particular problems for resolving them. The inferences of these findings were composed in Result section.

RESULT

Plausible solutions for the observed obstacles were noted as examples of novel formulations that can yield the following: better in vivo imaging, precise targeting and dosing of a specific site and specific cell type in a particular cancer, modulation of tumor surroundings, intonation of systemic effects and high reproducibility.

CONCLUSION

The angle of approach to the development of best nanosystem for a specific type of tumor needs to be spun around. Some of these changes can be brought about by individual scientists, some need to be established by collated efforts of scientists globally and some await advent of better technologies. Regardless of the stratagem, it can be said decisively that the schematics of development phase need rethinking.

Drug Delivery Using Nanoparticles for Cancer Stem-Like Cell Targeting

The theory of cancer stem-like cell (or cancer stem cell, CSC) has been established to explain how tumor heterogeneity arises and contributes to tumor progression in diverse cancer types. CSCs are believed to drive tumor growth and elicit resistance to conventional therapeutics. Therefore, CSCs are becoming novel target in both medical researches and clinical studies. Emerging evidences showed that nanoparticles effectively inhibit many types of CSCs by targeting various specific markers (aldehyde dehydrogenases, CD44, CD90, and CD133) and signaling pathways (Notch, Hedgehog, and TGF-β), which are critically involved in CSC function and maintenance. In this review, we briefly summarize the current status of CSC research and review a number of state-of-the-art nanomedicine approaches targeting CSC. In addition, we discuss emerging therapeutic strategies using epigenetic drugs to eliminate CSCs and inhibit cancer cell reprogramming.

Monocyte cell membrane-derived nanoghosts for targeted cancer therapy

Core-shell type 'nanoghosts' were synthesized with a drug-loaded biodegradable PLGA core and a monocyte cell membrane-derived shell. The nanoghosts were monodisperse with an average size <200 nm, and showed good serum stability for 120 h. Doxorubicin-loaded nanoghosts showed greater cellular uptake and cytotoxicity compared to non-coated nanoparticle controls in metastatic MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines.

Combination of drug-conjugated SWCNT nanocarriers for efficient therapy of cancer stem cells in a breast cancer animal model

Targeting breast cancer and more specifically cancer stem cell (CSC) subpopulation, responsible for tumor growth, resistance and self-renewal, using combination of therapeutic drugs selectively delivered via biocompatible nanocarriers, provides a novel approach for effective therapy. Here, we propose to evaluate the potential therapeutic efficacy of combining Paclitaxel and Salinomycin drugs actively targeted to both breast cancer and CSCs in xenograft murine model after conjugation with biocompatible CD44 antibody conjugated SWCNTs via hydrazone linker allowing pH-responsive release mechanism near the acidic tumor microenvironment. Both in vitro investigations on MDA-MB-231, sorted CSC negative or CSC positive fractions and in vivo evaluations on tumor-bearing mice using noninvasive bioluminescence and magnetic resonance imaging confirmed the enhanced therapeutic effect of the combined therapy compared to treatment with individual drug-conjugated nanocarriers or free drug suspensions. Thus, confirmed the great promise of the developed SWCNTs drug delivery system for effective breast cancer treatment by targeting and eradicating both whole tumor cells and CSCs populations.

Poly(L-histidine) based copolymers: Effect of the chemically substituted L-histidine on the physio-chemical properties of the micelles and in vivo biodistribution

Even though the Poly(l-histidine) (PHis) based copolymers have been well studied, the effect of the chemically substituted l-histidine on the physio-chemical and biological properties of the micelles has never been elucidated to date. To address this issue, triblock copolymer of poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(D,L-lactide)-poly(2,4-dinitrophenol-L-histidine)(mPEG-b-PLA-b-DNP-PHis) with DNP group substituted to the saturated nitrogen of l-histidine were synthesized. The pH sensitive properties of the copolymer micelles were characterized using an acid-base titration method, fluorescene probe technique, DLS observation, in vitro drug release and cytotoxicity against MCF-7 cells under different pH conditions, respectively. The results suggest that mPEG-b-PLA-b-DNP-PHis copolymers showed similar micellar stability for DOX loaded micelles, increased particle size, and similar pH responsive properties with mPEG-b-PLA-b-PHis copolymers. The subcellular distribution observation demonstrated that mPEG-b-PLA-b-DNP-PHis micelles showed a slightly compromised endo-lysosmal escape of doxorubicin as compared to mPEG-b-PLA-b-PHis micelles. The mPEG-b-PLA-b-DNP-PHis micelles showed higher cellular uptake by MCF-7 cells than mPEG-b-PLA-b-PHis micelles due to the different uptake pathways. Effect of DNP substitution on the in vivo distribution of the copolymer micelles was studied using non-invasive near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF) imaging with mPEG-b-PLA-b-PHis micelles as control. The results indicate that the mPEG-b-PLA-b-DNP-PHis micelles showed a reduced passive targeting to the tumor due to the larger particle size. These results suggest that saturated nitrogen of PHis may serve as a valuable site for chemical modification of the PHis based copolymers because of the little effect on the pH responsive properties. However, selection of the substitution group needs to be considered due to the possible increase of micellar particle size of the micelles, leading to compromised passive targeting.

Codelivery of dual drugs from polymeric micelles for simultaneous targeting of both cancer cells and cancer stem cells

AIM

Phenformin-loaded micelles (Phen M) were used in combination with gemcitabine-loaded micelles (Gem M) to study their combined effect against H460 human lung cancer cells and cancer stem cells (CSCs) in vitro and in vivo.

MATERIALS & METHODS

Gem M and Phen M were prepared via self-assembly of a mixture of a diblock copolymer of PEG and urea-functionalized polycarbonate (PEG-PUC) and a diblock copolymer of PEG and acid-functionalized polycarbonate (PEG-PAC) through hydrogen bonding and ionic interactions. Gem M and Phen M were characterized and tested for efficacy both in vitro and in vivo against cancer cells and CSCs.

RESULTS

The combination of Gem M/Phen M exhibited higher cytotoxicity against CSCs and non-CSCs than Gem M and Phen M alone, and showed significant cell cycle growth arrest in vitro. The combination therapy had superior tumor suppression and apoptosis in vivo without inducing toxicity to liver and kidney.

CONCLUSION

The combination of Gem M and Phen M may be potentially used in lung cancer therapy.