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Physiological Effects of Tail Regeneration following Autotomy in Italian Wall Lizards, Podarcis siculus. J HERPETOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1670/21-021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
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2
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Miranda RB, Klaczko J, Tonini JF, Brandão RA. Escaping from predators: a review of Neotropical lizards defence traits. ETHOL ECOL EVOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/03949370.2022.2082538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rogério B. Miranda
- Laboratório de Fauna e Unidades de Conservação, Departamento de Engenharia Florestal, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília (DF), Brazil
| | - Julia Klaczko
- Laboratório de Anatomia Comparada de Vertebrados, Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília (DF), Brazil
| | - João F.R. Tonini
- Museum of Comparative Zoology, Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge (MA), USA
| | - Reuber Albuquerque Brandão
- Laboratório de Fauna e Unidades de Conservação, Departamento de Engenharia Florestal, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília (DF), Brazil
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Patel S, Ranadive I, Buch P, Khaire K, Balakrishnan S. De Novo Transcriptome Sequencing and Analysis of Differential Gene Expression among Various Stages of Tail Regeneration in Hemidactylus flaviviridis. J Dev Biol 2022; 10:jdb10020024. [PMID: 35735915 PMCID: PMC9225231 DOI: 10.3390/jdb10020024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2022] [Revised: 06/08/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Across the animal kingdom, lizards are the only amniotes capable of regenerating their lost tail through epimorphosis. Of the many reptiles, the northern house gecko, Hemidactylus flaviviridis, is an excellent model system that is used for understanding the mechanism of epimorphic regeneration. A stage-specific transcriptome profile was generated in the current study following an autotomized tail with the HiSeq2500 platform. The reads obtained from de novo sequencing were filtered and high-quality reads were considered for gene ontology (GO) annotation and pathway analysis. Millions of reads were recorded for each stage upon de novo assembly. Up and down-regulated transcripts were categorized for early blastema (EBL), blastema (BL) and differentiation (DF) stages compared to the normal tail (NT) by differential gene expression analysis. The transcripts from developmentally significant pathways such as FGF, Wnt, Shh and TGF-β/BMP were present during tail regeneration. Additionally, differential expression of transcripts was recorded from biological processes, namely inflammation, cell proliferation, apoptosis and cell migration. Overall, the study reveals the stage-wise transcriptome analysis in conjunction with cellular processes as well as molecular signaling pathways during lizard tail regeneration. The knowledge obtained from the data can be extrapolated to configure regenerative responses in other amniotes, including humans, upon loss of a complex organ.
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Ontogeny and caudal autotomy fracture planes in a large scincid lizard, Egernia kingii. Sci Rep 2022; 12:7051. [PMID: 35488011 PMCID: PMC9054770 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-10962-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Many lizard species use caudal autotomy, the ability to self-amputate a portion of the tail, as an effective but costly survival strategy. However, as a lizard grows, its increased size may reduce predation risk allowing for less costly strategies (e.g., biting and clawing) to be used as the primary defence. The King's skink (Egernia kingii) is a large scincid up to approximately 244 mm snout to vent length (SVL) in size when adult. Adults rely less on caudal autotomy than do juveniles due to their size and strength increase during maturation. It has been hypothesised that lower behavioural reliance on autotomy in adults is reflected in loss or restriction of caudal vertebrae fracture planes through ossification as caudal intra-vertebral fracture planes in some species ossify during ontogenetic growth. To test this, we used micro-CT to image the tails of a growth series of seven individuals of E. kingii. We show that fracture planes are not lost or restricted ontogenetically within E. kingii, with adults retaining between 39-44 autotomisable vertebrae following 5-6 non-autotomisable vertebrae. Even though mature E. kingii rely less on caudal autotomy than do juveniles, this research shows that they retain the maximum ability to autotomise their tails, providing a last resort option to avoid threats. The potential costs associated with retaining caudal autotomy are most likely mitigated through neurological control of autotomy and E. kingii's longevity.
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Fernández‐Rodríguez I, Braña F. Short‐term and long‐term consequences of regeneration on the reproductive investment of a multivoltine lizard. J Zool (1987) 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- I. Fernández‐Rodríguez
- Department of Organisms and Systems Biology (Zoology) University of Oviedo Oviedo Spain
- Biodiversity Research Institute (IMIB, CSIC/UO/PA) University of Oviedo Mieres Spain
| | - F. Braña
- Department of Organisms and Systems Biology (Zoology) University of Oviedo Oviedo Spain
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Fernández-Rodríguez I, Braña F. Allocation costs of regeneration: tail regeneration constrains body growth under low food availability in juvenile lizards. Oecologia 2021; 198:853-864. [PMID: 34907460 PMCID: PMC9056467 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-021-05084-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The balance of energy allocated to development and growth of different body compartments may incur allocation conflicts and can thereby entail physiological and evolutionary consequences. Regeneration after autotomy restores the functionality lost after shedding a body part but requires a strong energy investment that may trade-off with other processes, like reproduction or growth. Caudal autotomy is a widespread antipredator strategy in lizards, but regeneration may provoke decreased growth rates in juveniles that could have subsequent consequences. Here, we assessed the growth of intact and regenerating hatchling wall lizards (Podarcis muralis) exposed to different food regimens. Regenerating juveniles presented slightly but significantly lower body growth rates than individuals with intact tails when facing low food availability, but there were no differences when food was supplied ad libitum. Regenerating individuals fed ad libitum increased their ingestion rates compared to intact ones during the period of greatest tail growth, which also reveals a cost of tail regeneration. When resources were scarce, hatchlings invested more in tail regeneration in relation to body growth, rather than delay regeneration to give priority to body growth. We propose that, in juvenile lizards, regeneration could be prioritized even at the expense of body growth to restore the functionality of the lost tail, likely increasing survivorship and the probability to reach reproductive maturity. Our study indicates that food availability is a key factor for the occurrence of trade-offs between regeneration and other growth processes, so that environmental conditions would be determinant for the severity of the costs of regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Fernández-Rodríguez
- Department of Organisms and Systems Biology (Zoology), University of Oviedo, 33071, Oviedo, Spain. .,Biodiversity Research Institute (IMIB, UO/CSIC/PA), University of Oviedo, Mieres, Spain.
| | - Florentino Braña
- Department of Organisms and Systems Biology (Zoology), University of Oviedo, 33071, Oviedo, Spain.,Biodiversity Research Institute (IMIB, UO/CSIC/PA), University of Oviedo, Mieres, Spain
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7
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Balakrishna S, Amdekar MS, Thaker M. Morphological divergence, tail loss, and predation risk in urban lizards. Urban Ecosyst 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11252-021-01122-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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8
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Barr JI, Boisvert CA, Bateman PW. At What Cost? Trade-Offs and Influences on Energetic Investment in Tail Regeneration in Lizards Following Autotomy. J Dev Biol 2021; 9:53. [PMID: 34940500 PMCID: PMC8709428 DOI: 10.3390/jdb9040053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2021] [Revised: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Caudal autotomy, the ability to shed a portion of the tail, is a widespread defence strategy among lizards. Following caudal autotomy, and during regeneration, lizards face both short- and long-term costs associated with the physical loss of the tail and the energy required for regeneration. As such, the speed at which the individual regenerates its tail (regeneration rate) should reflect the fitness priorities of the individual. However, multiple factors influence the regeneration rate in lizards, making inter-specific comparisons difficult and hindering broader scale investigations. We review regeneration rates for lizards and tuatara from the published literature, discuss how species' fitness priorities and regeneration rates are influenced by specific, life history and environmental factors, and provide recommendations for future research. Regeneration rates varied extensively (0-4.3 mm/day) across the 56 species from 14 family groups. Species-specific factors, influencing regeneration rates, varied based on the type of fracture plane, age, sex, reproductive season, and longevity. Environmental factors including temperature, photoperiod, nutrition, and stress also affected regeneration rates, as did the method of autotomy induction, and the position of the tail also influenced regeneration rates for lizards. Additionally, regeneration could alter an individual's behaviour, growth, and reproductive output, but this varied depending on the species.
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Affiliation(s)
- James I. Barr
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Kent Street, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia
| | - Catherine A. Boisvert
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Kent Street, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia
| | - Philip W. Bateman
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Kent Street, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia
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9
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Møller AP, Si X. Personality of hosts and their brood parasites. Curr Zool 2021; 67:625-630. [PMID: 34805539 PMCID: PMC8599032 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoab031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Brood parasites such as the common cuckoo Cuculus canorus exploit the parental abilities of their hosts, hosts avoid brood parasitism and predation by showing specific behavior such as loss of feathers, emission of fear screams and contact calls, displaying wriggle behavior to avoid hosts or potential prey, pecking at hosts and prey, and expressing tonic immobility (showing behavior like feigning death or rapid escape from predators and brood parasites). These aspects of escape behavior are consistent for individuals but also among sites, seasons, and years. Escape behavior expressed in response to a broad range of cuckoo hosts and prey are consistently used against capture by humans, but also hosts and brood parasites and predators and their prey. An interspecific comparative phylogenetic analysis of escape behavior by hosts and their brood parasites and prey and their predators revealed evidence of consistent behavior when encountering potential parasites or predators. We hypothesize that personality axes such as those ranging from fearfulness to being bold, and from neophobic to curiosity response in brood parasites constitute important components of defense against brood parasitism that reduces the overall risk of parasitism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anders Pape Møller
- Laboratoire d'Ecologie, Systématique et Evolution, CNRS UMR 8079, Université-Saclay, Bâtiment 362, Orsay Cedex F-91405, France.,Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Ecological Engineering, College of Life Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Xingfeng Si
- Zhejiang Tiantong Forest Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
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10
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Schwaner MJ, Hsieh ST, Braasch I, Bradley S, Campos CB, Collins CE, Donatelli CM, Fish FE, Fitch OE, Flammang BE, Jackson BE, Jusufi A, Mekdara PJ, Patel A, Swalla BJ, Vickaryous M, McGowan CP. Future Tail Tales: A Forward-Looking, Integrative Perspective on Tail Research. Integr Comp Biol 2021; 61:521-537. [PMID: 33999184 PMCID: PMC8680820 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icab082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Synopsis Tails are a defining characteristic of chordates and show enormous diversity in function and shape. Although chordate tails share a common evolutionary and genetic-developmental origin, tails are extremely versatile in morphology and function. For example, tails can be short or long, thin or thick, and feathered or spiked, and they can be used for propulsion, communication, or balancing, and they mediate in predator-prey outcomes. Depending on the species of animal the tail is attached to, it can have extraordinarily multi-functional purposes. Despite its morphological diversity and broad functional roles, tails have not received similar scientific attention as, for example, the paired appendages such as legs or fins. This forward-looking review article is a first step toward interdisciplinary scientific synthesis in tail research. We discuss the importance of tail research in relation to five topics: (1) evolution and development, (2) regeneration, (3) functional morphology, (4) sensorimotor control, and (5) computational and physical models. Within each of these areas, we highlight areas of research and combinations of long-standing and new experimental approaches to move the field of tail research forward. To best advance a holistic understanding of tail evolution and function, it is imperative to embrace an interdisciplinary approach, re-integrating traditionally siloed fields around discussions on tail-related research.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Schwaner
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - S T Hsieh
- Department of Biology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA
| | - I Braasch
- Department of Integrative Biology and Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior (EEB), Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - S Bradley
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Guelph, Guelph N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - C B Campos
- Department of Biological Sciences, Sacramento State University, Sacramento, CA 95819, USA
| | - C E Collins
- Department of Biological Sciences, Sacramento State University, Sacramento, CA 95819, USA
| | - C M Donatelli
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ontario K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - F E Fish
- Department of Biology, West Chester University, West Chester, PA 19383, USA
| | - O E Fitch
- Department of Integrative Biology and Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior (EEB), Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - B E Flammang
- Department of Biological Sciences, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ 07102, USA
| | - B E Jackson
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Longwood University, Farmville, VA 23909, USA
| | - A Jusufi
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart 70569, Germany
| | - P J Mekdara
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - A Patel
- Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7701, South Africa
| | - B J Swalla
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - M Vickaryous
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Guelph, Guelph N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - C P McGowan
- Department of Integrative Anatomical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
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11
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Gilad T, Dorfman A, Subach A, Scharf I. Leg or antenna injury in Cataglyphis ants impairs survival but does not hinder searching for food. Curr Zool 2021; 68:441-450. [PMID: 36090143 PMCID: PMC9450180 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoab027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Injury is common in nature resulting, for example, from fighting, partial predation, or the wear of body parts. Injury is costly, expressed in impaired performance, failure in competition, and a shorter life span. A survey of the literature revealed the frequent occurrence of injury in ants and its various causes. We examined whether leg or antenna injury impacts food-discovery time and reduces the likelihood of reaching food in workers of the desert ant Cataglyphis niger. We examined the search-related consequences of injury in groups of either 4 or 8 workers searching for food in a short arena, a long arena, and a maze. We conducted a small field survey to evaluate the prevalence of injury in the studied population. Finally, we compared the survival rates of injured versus uninjured workers in the laboratory. Injury was common in the field, with almost 9% of the workers collected out of the nest, found to be injured. Injured workers survived shorter than uninjured ones and there was a positive link between injury severity and survival. However, we could not detect an effect of injury on any of the searching-related response variables, neither in the arenas nor in the mazes tested. We suggest that workers that survive such injury are only moderately affected by it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomer Gilad
- School of Zoology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, 69978 Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Arik Dorfman
- School of Zoology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, 69978 Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Aziz Subach
- School of Zoology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, 69978 Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Inon Scharf
- School of Zoology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, 69978 Tel Aviv, Israel
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12
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Gorzelak P, Salamon MA, Brom K, Oji T, Oguri K, Kołbuk D, Dec M, Brachaniec T, Saucède T. Experimental neoichnology of post-autotomy arm movements of sea lilies and possible evidence of thrashing behaviour in Triassic holocrinids. Sci Rep 2020; 10:15147. [PMID: 32934271 PMCID: PMC7492279 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-72116-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Echinoderms exhibit remarkable powers of autotomy. For instance, crinoids can shed arm and stalk portions when attacked by predators. In some species, it has been reported that the autotomized arms display vigorous movements, which are thought to divert the attention of predators. This phenomenon, however, has not been well explored. Here we present results of experiments using the shallowest water species of living stalked crinoid (Metacrinus rotundus) collected at 140 m depth. A wide range of movements of detached arms, from sluggish writhing to violent flicks, was observed. Interestingly, autotomized arms produce distinct traces on the sediment surface. They are composed of straight or arched grooves usually arranged in radiating groups and shallow furrows. Similar traces were found associated with detached arms of the oldest (Early Triassic) stem-group isocrinid (Holocrinus). This finding may suggest that the origins of autotomy-related thrashing behaviour in crinoids could be traced back to at least the Early Triassic, underscoring the magnitude of anti-predatory traits that occurred during the Mesozoic Marine Revolution. A new ethological category, autotomichnia, is proposed for the traces produced by thrashing movements of shed appendages.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mariusz A Salamon
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Silesia in Katowice, Sosnowiec, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Brom
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Silesia in Katowice, Sosnowiec, Poland
| | - Tatsuo Oji
- University Museum, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Nagoya, 464-8601, Japan
| | - Kazumasa Oguri
- Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), 2-15 Natsushima-cho, Yokosuka, 237-0061, Japan
| | - Dorota Kołbuk
- Institute of Paleobiology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Marek Dec
- Polish Geological Institute - National Research Institute, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Tomasz Brachaniec
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Silesia in Katowice, Sosnowiec, Poland
| | - Thomas Saucède
- Biogéosciences UMR CNRS 6282, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
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13
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Michaud JP, Abdelwahab AH, Bayoumy MH, Awadalla SS, El-Gendy M. Measuring the Costs of Limb Regeneration and Their Transgenerational Consequences in Two Nearctic Lady Beetles (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 2020; 113:1780-1785. [PMID: 32449513 DOI: 10.1093/jee/toaa100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2019] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
We examined the ability of Coleomegilla maculata DeGeer and Hippodamia convergens Guerin-Meneville to regenerate, during pupation, a foreleg amputated in the fourth instar. Leg regeneration was complete for 80.7% of amputated H. convergens larvae, with 12.5% regenerating partially, and 6.8% showing no regeneration. Regeneration in C. maculata was 72.2% complete, 20.5% partial, and 7.2% none, but mortality following ablation was slightly higher than for H. convergens (7.4 vs. 0.6%). Ablation/regeneration caused a slight delay in pupation, but pupation time, fresh mass at emergence, and reproductive performance remained unaffected in either species. Reciprocal crosses were made between regenerated and unoperated beetles, and 12 progeny reared from the second clutch of each female in all treatments. Mating treatment affected eclosion time in H. convergens, whereas in C. maculata, larval development and pupation time were also affected. Considering all treatments, larval mortality was higher in H. convergens than in C. maculata, but lower when both H. convergens parents regenerated. Parental mating treatment did not affect adult weight in either species, but development of C. maculata progeny was faster when only the sire regenerated, and slower when the only the dame regenerated, whereas progeny of regenerated sires completed pupated faster than those sired by controls. We infer that genes activated during regeneration have pleiotropic effects with subtle, gender-specific, epigenetic consequences. If these pleiotropic effects are genetically linked to important traits, regenerative genetic elements could be conserved in coccinellids via natural selection acting on these traits, rather than on regenerative ability per se.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Michaud
- Department of Entomology, Agricultural Research Center-Hays, Kansas State University, Hays, KS
| | - Ahmed H Abdelwahab
- Department of Entomology, Agricultural Research Center-Hays, Kansas State University, Hays, KS
- Plant Protection Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center - Dokki, Giza, Egypt
| | - Mohamed H Bayoumy
- Faculty of Agriculture, Economic Entomology Department, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
| | - S S Awadalla
- Faculty of Agriculture, Economic Entomology Department, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
| | - M El-Gendy
- Plant Protection Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center - Dokki, Giza, Egypt
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14
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Heninger R, Watson CM, Cox CL. Relative fitness of decoy coloration is mediated by habitat type. ZOOLOGY 2020; 142:125820. [PMID: 32769003 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2020.125820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2020] [Revised: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Predator-prey interactions can be important drivers of morphological evolution, and antipredator traits in particular. Further, ecological context can be an important factor shaping the evolution of these traits. However, the role of ecological factors such as habitat structure in altering predator-based selection is not well known for antipredator traits such as decoy coloration. We used a combination of a natural history collection survey and a clay model experiment in open- and closed-canopy habitats to study how ecological context alters the fitness benefit of either red or blue decoy coloration in skinks. We found that the development and ecology of red decoy coloration of mole skinks differed substantially from blue tail coloration of other sympatric skink species. Mole skinks do not reach the body size of sympatric species of skinks and retain decoy coloration throughout development. Both patterns of scarring in museum specimens and attacks on plasticine models suggest that red coloration serves as a decoy, attracting attacks to the autotomous tail. While predation rates were similar across habitats, models with red tails were attacked far less frequently in open habitats than models with blue tails, while attack rates were similar in closed habitats. Our results suggest that red decoy coloration in mole skinks could be an adaptation to relatively open-canopy habitats. Our study has important implications for understanding how habitat structure and predator-based selection can alter the evolutionary dynamics of decoy coloration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryann Heninger
- Department of Biology, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, USA.
| | - Charles M Watson
- Deparment of Biology, Midwestern State University, Wichita Falls, TX, USA.
| | - Christian L Cox
- Department of Biology, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, USA; Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA.
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15
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Barr JI, Somaweera R, Godfrey SS, Gardner MG, Bateman PW. When one tail isn't enough: abnormal caudal regeneration in lepidosaurs and its potential ecological impacts. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2020; 95:1479-1496. [PMID: 32583608 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Revised: 05/22/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Abnormal caudal regeneration, the production of additional tails through regeneration events, occurs in lepidosaurs as a result of incomplete autotomy or sufficient caudal wound. Despite being widely known to occur, documented events generally are limited to opportunistic single observations - hindering the understanding of the ecological importance of caudal regeneration. Here we compiled and reviewed a robust global database of both peer-reviewed and non-peer reviewed records of abnormal regeneration events in lepidosaurs published over the last 400 years. Using this database, we qualitatively and quantitatively assessed the occurrence and characteristics of abnormal tail regeneration among individuals, among species, and among populations. We identified 425 observations from 366 records pertaining to 175 species of lepidosaurs across 22 families from 63 different countries. At an individual level, regenerations ranged from bifurcations to hexafurcations; from normal regeneration from the original tail to multiple regenerations arising from a single point; and from growth from the distal third to the proximal third of the tail. Species showing abnormal regenerations included those with intra-vertebral, inter-vertebral or no autotomy planes, indicating that abnormal regenerations evidently occur across lepidosaurs regardless of whether the species demonstrates caudal autotomy or not. Within populations, abnormal regenerations were estimated at a mean ± SD of 2.75 ± 3.41% (range 0.1-16.7%). There is a significant lack of experimental studies to understand the potential ecological impacts of regeneration on the fitness and life history of individuals and populations. We hypothesised that abnormal regeneration may affect lepidosaurs via influencing kinematics of locomotion, restrictions in escape mechanisms, anti-predation tactics, and intra- and inter-specific signalling. Behaviourally testing these hypotheses would be an important future research direction.
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Affiliation(s)
- James I Barr
- Behavioural Ecology Laboratory, School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Kent Street, Bentley, WA, 6102, Australia.,CSIRO Health and Biosecurity, 147 Underwood Avenue, Floreat, WA, 6014, Australia
| | - Ruchira Somaweera
- CSIRO Health and Biosecurity, 147 Underwood Avenue, Floreat, WA, 6014, Australia
| | - Stephanie S Godfrey
- Department of Zoology, University of Otago, 340 Great King Street, North Dunedin, Dunedin, 9016, New Zealand
| | - Michael G Gardner
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Sturt Road, Bedford Park, SA, 5042, Australia.,The Evolutionary Biology Unit, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, SA, 5000, Australia
| | - Philip W Bateman
- Behavioural Ecology Laboratory, School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Kent Street, Bentley, WA, 6102, Australia
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16
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Dunoyer LA, Seifert AW, Van Cleve J. Evolutionary bedfellows: Reconstructing the ancestral state of autotomy and regeneration. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART B-MOLECULAR AND DEVELOPMENTAL EVOLUTION 2020; 336:94-115. [PMID: 32558244 DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.22974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2019] [Revised: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 05/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Some form of regeneration occurs in all lifeforms and extends from single-cell organisms to humans. The degree to which regenerative ability is distributed across different taxa, however, is harder to ascertain given the potential for phylogenetic constraint or inertia, and adaptive processes to shape this pattern. Here, we examine the phylogenetic history of regeneration in two groups where the trait has been well-studied: arthropods and reptiles. Because autotomy is often present alongside regeneration in these groups, we performed ancestral state reconstructions for both traits to more precisely assess the timing of their origins and the degree to which these traits coevolve. Using an ancestral trait reconstruction, we find that autotomy and regeneration were present at the base of the arthropod and reptile trees. We also find that when autotomy is lost it does not re-evolve easily. Lastly, we find that the distribution of regeneration is intimately connected to autotomy with the association being stronger in reptiles than in arthropods. Although these patterns suggest that decoupling autotomy and regeneration at a broad phylogenetic scale may be difficult, the available data provides useful insight into their entanglement. Ultimately, our reconstructions provide the important groundwork to explore how selection may have played a role during the loss of regeneration in specific lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luc A Dunoyer
- Department of Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky.,Department of Life Sciences, Wake Technical Community College, Raleigh, North Carolina
| | - Ashley W Seifert
- Department of Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
| | - Jeremy Van Cleve
- Department of Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
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17
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Barr JI, Boisvert CA, Somaweera R, Trinajstic K, Bateman PW. Re-regeneration to reduce negative effects associated with tail loss in lizards. Sci Rep 2019; 9:18717. [PMID: 31822746 PMCID: PMC6904483 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-55231-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Many species of lizard use caudal autotomy, the ability to self-amputate a portion of their tail, regenerated over time, as an effective anti-predation mechanism. The importance of this tactic for survival depends on the degree of predation risk. There are, however, negative trade-offs to losing a tail, such as loss of further autotomy opportunities with the regenerated tail vertebrae being replaced by a continuous cartilaginous rod. The common consensus has been that once a tail has been autotomised and regenerated it can only be autotomised proximal to the last vertebral autotomy point, as the cartilage rod lacks autotomy planes. However, anecdotal evidence suggests that although the regenerated portion of the tail is unable to autotomise, it can re-regenerate following a physical shearing event. We assessed re-regeneration in three populations of the King’s skink (Egernia kingii), a large lizard endemic to south-west Western Australia and surrounding islands. We show that re-regeneration is present at an average of 17.2% across the three populations, and re-regenerated tissue can comprise up to 23.3% of an individual’s total tail length. The ability to re-regenerate may minimise the costs to an individual’s fitness associated with tail loss, efficiently restoring ecological functions of the tail.
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Affiliation(s)
- James I Barr
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Kent Street, Bentley, WA, 6102, Australia. .,CSIRO Land and Water, 147 Underwood Avenue, Floreat, WA, 6014, Australia.
| | - Catherine A Boisvert
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Kent Street, Bentley, WA, 6102, Australia
| | - Ruchira Somaweera
- CSIRO Health and Biosecurity, 147 Underwood Avenue, Floreat, WA, 6014, Australia
| | - Kate Trinajstic
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Kent Street, Bentley, WA, 6102, Australia
| | - Philip W Bateman
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Kent Street, Bentley, WA, 6102, Australia.
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18
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Barr JI, Somaweera R, Godfrey SS, Bateman PW. Increased tail length in the King’s skink,Egernia kingii(Reptilia: Scincidae): an anti-predation tactic for juveniles? Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/bly196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- James I Barr
- Behavioural Ecology Lab., School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia
- CSIRO Land and Water, Floreat, WA , Australia
| | | | - Stephanie S Godfrey
- Department of Zoology, University of Otago, North Dunedin, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Philip W Bateman
- Behavioural Ecology Lab., School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia
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19
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Jacyniak K, Vickaryous MK. Constitutive cardiomyocyte proliferation in the leopard gecko (Eublepharis macularius
). J Morphol 2018; 279:1355-1367. [DOI: 10.1002/jmor.20850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Revised: 05/14/2018] [Accepted: 05/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kathy Jacyniak
- Department of Biomedical Sciences; Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph; Guelph Ontario Canada
| | - Matthew K. Vickaryous
- Department of Biomedical Sciences; Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph; Guelph Ontario Canada
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20
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Savvides P, Poliviou V, Stavrou M, Sfenthourakis S, Pafilis P. Insights into how predator diversity, population density and habitat type may affect defensive behaviour in a Mediterranean lizard. ETHOL ECOL EVOL 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/03949370.2018.1477836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pantelis Savvides
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Venetia Poliviou
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Maria Stavrou
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus
| | | | - Panayiotis Pafilis
- Section of Zoology and Marine Biology, Department of Biology, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
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21
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Jagnandan K, Higham TE. Neuromuscular control of locomotion is altered by tail autotomy in geckos. J Exp Biol 2018; 221:jeb.179564. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.179564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2018] [Accepted: 07/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Animal locomotion is driven by underlying axial and appendicular musculature. In order for locomotion to be effective, these muscles must be able to rapidly respond to changes in environmental and physiological demands. Although virtually unstudied, muscles must also respond to morphological changes, such as those that occur with tail autotomy in lizards. Tail autotomy in leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius) results in a 25% loss of caudal mass and significant kinematic alterations to maintain stability. To elucidate how motor control of the locomotor muscles is modulated with these shifts, we used electromyography (EMG) to quantify patterns of in vivo muscle activity in fore- and hind limb muscles before and after autotomy. Forelimb muscles (biceps brachii and triceps brachii) exhibited no changes in motor recruitment, consistent with unaltered kinematics after autotomy. Amplitude of activity of propulsive muscles of the hind limbs (caudofemoralis and gastrocnemius) was significantly reduced and coincided with decreases in the propulsive phases of femur retraction and ankle extension, respectively. The puboischiotibialis did not exhibit these changes, despite significant reductions in femur depression and knee angle, suggesting that reduction in mass and vertical ground-reaction force by autotomy allows for the maintenance of a more sprawled and stable posture without increasing motor recruitment of the support muscles. These results highlight the significant neuromuscular shifts that occur to accommodate dramatic changes in body size and mass distribution, and illuminate the utility of tail autotomy as a system for studying the neuromuscular control of locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Jagnandan
- Life Sciences Department, San Diego City College, 1313 Park Boulevard, San Diego, CA 92101, USA
| | - Timothy E. Higham
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Organismal Biology, University of California, Riverside, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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22
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Lateral movements of a massive tail influence gecko locomotion: an integrative study comparing tail restriction and autotomy. Sci Rep 2017; 7:10865. [PMID: 28883491 PMCID: PMC5589804 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-11484-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2017] [Accepted: 08/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Tails are an intricate component of the locomotor system for many vertebrates. Leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius) possess a large tail that is laterally undulated during steady locomotion. However, the tail is readily shed via autotomy, resulting in the loss of tail function, loss in body mass, and a cranial shift in the center of mass. To elucidate the function of tail undulations, we investigated changes in limb kinematics after manipulating the tail artificially by restricting tail undulations and naturally by removing the tail via autotomy. Restricting tail undulations resulted in kinematic adjustments similar to those that occur following tail autotomy, characterized by more flexed hind limb joints. These data suggest that effects of autotomy on locomotion may be linked to the loss of tail movements rather than the loss of mass or a shift in center of mass. We also provide empirical support for the link between lateral tail undulations and step length through the rotation of the pelvic girdle and retraction of the femur. Restriction and autotomy of the tail limits pelvic rotation, which reduces femur retraction and decreases step length. Our findings demonstrate a functional role for tail undulations in geckos, which likely applies to other terrestrial vertebrates.
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23
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Hessel AL, Ryerson WG, Whitenack LB. Doing Without: Jump Performance After Tail Autotomy in Three Species of Plethodontid Salamanders. HERPETOLOGICA 2017. [DOI: 10.1655/herpetologica-d-15-00067.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anthony L. Hessel
- Department of Biological Sciences, Allegheny College, Meadville, PA 16335, USA
| | - William G. Ryerson
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Lisa B. Whitenack
- Department of Biological Sciences, Allegheny College, Meadville, PA 16335, USA
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24
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Sagonas K, Karambotsi N, Bletsa A, Reppa A, Pafilis P, Valakos ED. Tail regeneration affects the digestive performance of a Mediterranean lizard. Naturwissenschaften 2017; 104:22. [DOI: 10.1007/s00114-017-1437-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2016] [Revised: 01/26/2017] [Accepted: 01/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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25
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Otaibi BW, Johnson QK, Cosentino BJ. Postautotomy tail movement differs between colour morphs of the red-backed salamander (Plethodon cinereus). AMPHIBIA-REPTILIA 2017. [DOI: 10.1163/15685381-00003107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Striped and unstriped colour morphs of the eastern red-backed salamander,Plethodon cinereus, vary in their pre-attack behavioural response to predators, but it is unknown whether the morphs vary in post-attack strategies. Both morphs employ tail autotomy, a post-attack defensive mechanism enabling an individual to release a portion of their tail to facilitate escape from predation. Postautotomy tail movement diverts attention of a predator away from the individual’s body, so natural selection should favor vigorous tail movement in both colour morphs ofP. cinereus. We compared the degree of postautotomy tail movement between morphs following simulated predation. Striped individuals exhibited substantially longer and faster tail movement than unstriped individuals. Divergence in postautotomy tail movement may be a direct evolved response to variable predation pressure between colour morphs. Alternatively, tail movement may be constrained in the unstriped morph due to a genetic correlation with colouration (e.g., pleiotropy).
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Affiliation(s)
- Banan W. Otaibi
- Department of Biology, Hobart and William Smith Colleges, Geneva, NY 14456, USA
| | - Quincey K. Johnson
- Department of Biology, Hobart and William Smith Colleges, Geneva, NY 14456, USA
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26
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Tails of the City: Caudal Autotomy in the Tropical Lizard,Anolis cristatellus, in Urban and Natural Areas of Puerto Rico. J HERPETOL 2016. [DOI: 10.1670/15-039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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27
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Sousa HC, Costa BM, Morais CJS, Pantoja DL, Queiroz TA, Vieira CR, Colli GR. Blue tales of a blue‐tailed lizard: ecological correlates of tail autotomy in
Micrablepharus atticolus
(Squamata, Gymnophthalmidae) in a Neotropical savannah. J Zool (1987) 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- H. C. Sousa
- Departamento de Zoologia Universidade de Brasília Brasília DF Brasil
| | - B. M. Costa
- Instituto Federal de Brasília Gama DF Brasil
| | - C. J. S. Morais
- Departamento de Zoologia Universidade de Brasília Brasília DF Brasil
| | - D. L. Pantoja
- Departamento de Zoologia Universidade de Brasília Brasília DF Brasil
| | - T. A. Queiroz
- Departamento de Zoologia Universidade de Brasília Brasília DF Brasil
| | - C. R. Vieira
- Department of Biology Utah State University Logan UT USA
| | - G. R. Colli
- Departamento de Zoologia Universidade de Brasília Brasília DF Brasil
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28
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Tail autotomy effects on the escape behavior of the lizard Gonatodes albogularis (Squamata: Sphaerodactylidae), from Córdoba, Colombia. REVISTA CHILENA DE HISTORIA NATURAL 2015. [DOI: 10.1186/s40693-014-0010-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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29
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Hsieh ST. Tail loss and narrow surfaces decrease locomotor stability in the arboreal green anole lizard (Anolis carolinensis). J Exp Biol 2015; 219:364-73. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.124958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2015] [Accepted: 11/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Tails play an important role for dynamic stabilization during falling and jumping in lizards. Yet, tail autotomy (the voluntary loss of an appendage) is a common mechanism used for predator evasion among these animals. How tail autotomy impacts locomotor performance and stability remains poorly understood. The goal of this study was to determine how tail loss affects running kinematics and performance in the arboreal green anole lizard, Anolis carolinensis (Voigt, 1832). Lizards were run along four surface widths (9.5 mm, 15.9 mm, 19.0 mm, and flat), before and following 75% tail autotomy. Results indicate that when perturbed with changes in surface breadth and tail condition, surface breadth tends to have greater impacts on locomotor performance than does tail loss. Furthermore, while tail loss does have a destabilizing effect during regular running in these lizards, its function during steady locomotion is minimal. Instead, the tail likely plays a more active role during dynamic maneuvers that require dramatic changes in whole body orientation or center of mass trajectories.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. Tonia Hsieh
- Department of Biology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA
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30
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Brock KM, Bednekoff PA, Pafilis P, Foufopoulos J. Evolution of antipredator behavior in an island lizard species,Podarcis erhardii(Reptilia: Lacertidae): The sum of all fears? Evolution 2014; 69:216-31. [DOI: 10.1111/evo.12555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2014] [Accepted: 10/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kinsey M. Brock
- School of Natural Resources & Environment; University of Michigan, Dana Hall, 440 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
| | - Peter A. Bednekoff
- Department of Biology; Eastern Michigan University, Mark Jefferson Science Complex, 900 Oakwood Street, Ypsilanti, Michigan 48197
| | - Panayiotis Pafilis
- Section of Human and Animal Physiology; Department of Biology, University of Athens, Panepistimioupolis 157-84, Athens, Greece
| | - Johannes Foufopoulos
- School of Natural Resources & Environment; University of Michigan, Dana Hall, 440 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
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31
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Jagnandan K, Russell AP, Higham TE. Tail autotomy and subsequent regeneration alter the mechanics of locomotion in lizards. J Exp Biol 2014; 217:3891-7. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.110916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Animals undergo significant weight change due to a variety of causes. Autotomy, the voluntary shedding of an appendage in response to a predator stimulus, provides an effective model for measuring the effects of rapid weight change on locomotor behavior and the responses to more gradual weight gain, particularly in lizards capable of both autotomizing and regenerating their tail. Although the general effects of autotomy on locomotor performance are commonly explored, we investigated changes in locomotor mechanics associated with tail loss and long-term regeneration for the first time by measuring morphology, 3D kinematics, and ground reaction forces (GRFs) in the leopard gecko, Eublepharis macularius. Tail autotomy resulted in a 13% anterior shift in the center of mass (CoM), which only partially recovered after full regeneration of the tail. Although no changes in body or forelimb kinematics were evident, decreases in hindlimb joint angles signify a more sprawled posture following autotomy. Changes in hindlimb GRFs resulted in an increase in weight-specific propulsive force, without a corresponding change in locomotor speed. Hindlimb kinematics and GRFs following autotomy recovered to pre-autotomy values as the tail regenerated. These results suggest an active locomotor response to tail loss that demonstrates the causal relationships between morphological, kinematic, and force variation.
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32
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Fleming PA, Valentine LE, Bateman PW. Telling tails: selective pressures acting on investment in lizard tails. Physiol Biochem Zool 2013; 86:645-58. [PMID: 24241062 DOI: 10.1086/673864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Caudal autotomy is a common defense mechanism in lizards, where the animal may lose part or all of its tail to escape entrapment. Lizards show an immense variety in the degree of investment in a tail (i.e., length) across species, with tails of some species up to three or four times body length (snout-vent length [SVL]). Additionally, body size and form also vary dramatically, including variation in leg development and robustness and length of the body and tail. Autotomy is therefore likely to have fundamentally different effects on the overall body form and function in different species, which may be reflected directly in the incidence of lost/regenerating tails within populations or, over a longer period, in terms of relative tail length for different species. We recorded data (literature, museum specimens, field data) for relative tail length (n=350 species) and the incidence of lost/regenerating tails (n=246 species). We compared these (taking phylogeny into account) with intrinsic factors that have been proposed to influence selective pressures acting on caudal autotomy, including body form (robustness, body length, leg development, and tail specialization) and ecology (foraging behavior, physical and temporal niches), in an attempt to identify patterns that might reflect adaptive responses to these different factors. More gracile species have relatively longer tails (all 350 spp., P < 0.001; also significant for five of the six families tested separately), as do longer (all species, P < 0.001; Iguanidae, P < 0.05; Lacertidae, P < 0.001; Scindidae, P < 0.001), climbing (all species, P < 0.05), and diurnal (all species, P < 0.01; Pygopodidae, P < 0.01) species; geckos without specialized tails (P < 0.05); or active-foraging skinks (P < 0.05). We also found some relationships with the data for caudal autotomy, with more lost/regenerating tails for nocturnal lizards (all 246 spp., P < 0.01; Scindidae, P < 0.05), larger skinks (P < 0.05), climbing geckos (P < 0.05), or active-foraging iguanids (P < 0.05). The selective advantage of investing in a relatively longer tail may be due to locomotor mechanics, although the patterns observed are also largely consistent with predictions based on predation pressure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia A Fleming
- School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia 6150, Australia; 2Department of Environment and Agriculture, Curtin University, Bentley, Western Australia 6845, Australia
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33
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McElroy EJ, Bergmann PJ. Tail Autotomy, Tail Size, and Locomotor Performance in Lizards. Physiol Biochem Zool 2013; 86:669-79. [DOI: 10.1086/673890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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34
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Higham TE, Russell AP, Zani PA. Integrative Biology of Tail Autotomy in Lizards. Physiol Biochem Zool 2013; 86:603-10. [DOI: 10.1086/673875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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35
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Critical Tail Autotomy for Reduction of Maximal Swimming Performance in a Plethodontid Salamander (Desmognathus quadramaculatus). J HERPETOL 2013. [DOI: 10.1670/12-011r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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36
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Effects of Caudal Autotomy on Postnatal Growth Rates of HatchlingPsammodromus algirus. J HERPETOL 2012. [DOI: 10.1670/10-321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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37
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Watson CM, Roelke CE, Pasichnyk PN, Cox CL. The fitness consequences of the autotomous blue tail in lizards: an empirical test of predator response using clay models. ZOOLOGY 2012; 115:339-44. [PMID: 22938695 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2012.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2011] [Revised: 03/30/2012] [Accepted: 04/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Numerous vertebrates employ one or more autotomous body parts as an anti-predation mechanism. Many lizards possess an autotomous tail that is brightly colored blue, which has been suggested to either serve as a decoy mechanism to divert predator attention to the autotomous body part, as an interspecific signal, or as an aposematic signal to predators that it is distasteful or dangerous. While theoretical studies suggest that a conspicuous autotomous body part that increases the probability of escape while not increasing the rate of detection will be favorable over a completely cryptic form, there is little empirical evidence supporting the adaptive benefit of an autotomous blue tail. We used in situ clay models of a scincid lizard to test the fitness consequences of blue coloration. Lizard models with a dark base color and blue decoy coloration experienced no measurable difference in avian predation relative to an all-dark model, which suggests that blue coloration neither serves as an aposematic signal nor increases the conspicuousness of the lizard model. Despite statistically similar attack rates, avian attacks on models with blue coloration were indeed focused on body sections that were colored blue. Our results suggest that the blue tail in lizards serves as an effective decoy, and that avian predation has possibly played a role in the evolution of the blue tail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles M Watson
- Department of Biology and Health Sciences, McNeese State University, Box 92000, Lake Charles, LA 70609, USA.
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38
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Kuo CY, Gillis GB, Irschick DJ. Take this broken tail and learn to jump: the ability to recover from reduced in-air stability in tailless green anole lizards [Anolis carolinensis(Squamata: Dactyloidae)]. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2012.01958.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chi-Yun Kuo
- The Graduate Program in Organismic and Evolutionary Biology; University of Massachusetts Amherst; Amherst MA 01003 USA
| | - Gary B. Gillis
- The Graduate Program in Organismic and Evolutionary Biology; University of Massachusetts Amherst; Amherst MA 01003 USA
- Department of Biological Sciences; Mount Holyoke College; South Hadley MA 01075 USA
| | - Duncan J. Irschick
- The Graduate Program in Organismic and Evolutionary Biology; University of Massachusetts Amherst; Amherst MA 01003 USA
- Department of Biology; University of Massachusetts Amherst; Amherst MA 01003 USA
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39
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Guohua DING, Tianbao FU, Zongshi ZHOU, Xiang JI. Tail Autotomy Does Not Increase Locomotor Costs in the Oriental Leaf-toed Gecko Hemidactylus bowringii. ASIAN HERPETOL RES 2012. [DOI: 10.3724/sp.j.1245.2012.00141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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40
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Ritzman TB, Stroik LK, Julik E, Hutchins ED, Lasku E, Denardo DF, Wilson-Rawls J, Rawls JA, Kusumi K, Fisher RE. The Gross Anatomy of the Original and Regenerated Tail in the Green Anole (Anolis carolinensis). Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2012; 295:1596-608. [DOI: 10.1002/ar.22524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2012] [Revised: 05/25/2012] [Accepted: 06/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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41
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Higham TE, Russell AP. Time-varying motor control of autotomized leopard gecko tails: multiple inputs and behavioral modulation. J Exp Biol 2012; 215:435-41. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.054460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
Autotomy (voluntary loss of an appendage) is common among diverse groups of vertebrates and invertebrates, and much attention has been given to ecological and developmental aspects of tail autotomy in lizards. Although most studies have focused on the ramifications for the lizard (behavior, biomechanics, energetics, etc.), the tail itself can exhibit interesting behaviors once segregated from the body. For example, recent work highlighted the ability of leopard gecko tails to jump and flip, in addition to being able to swing back and forth. Little is known, however, about the control mechanisms underlying these movements. Using electromyography, we examined the time-varying in vivo motor patterns at four sites (two proximal and two distal) in the tail of the leopard gecko, Eublepharis macularius, following autotomy. Using these data we tested the hypothesis that the disparity in movements results simply from overlapping pattern generators within the tail. We found that burst duration, but not cycle duration, of the rhythmic swings reached a plateau at approximately 150 s following autotomy. This is likely because of physiological changes related to muscle fatigue and ischemia. For flips and jumps, burst and cycle duration exhibited no regular pattern. The coefficient of variation in motor patterns was significantly greater for jumps and flips than for rhythmic swings. This supports the conclusion that the different tail behaviors do not stem from overlapping pattern generators, but that they rely upon independent neural circuits. The signal controlling jumps and flips may be modified by sensory information from the environment. Finally, we found that jumps and flips are initiated using relatively synchronous activity between the two sides of the tail. In contrast, alternating activation of the right and left sides of the tail result in rhythmic swings. The mechanism underlying this change in tail behavior is comparable to locomotor gait changes in vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy E. Higham
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, 132 Long Hall, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| | - Anthony P. Russell
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
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42
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Morphological and biochemical analyses of original and regenerated lizard tails reveal variation in protein and lipid composition. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2012; 161:77-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2011.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2011] [Revised: 09/15/2011] [Accepted: 09/15/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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43
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Møller AP, Christiansen SS, Mousseau TA. Sexual signals, risk of predation and escape behavior. Behav Ecol 2011. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arr046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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44
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Abstract
A recent increase in comparative studies of the ecological and evolutionary consequences of brain size in birds and primates in particular have suggested that cognitive abilities constitute a central link. Surprisingly, there are hardly any intraspecific studies investigating how individuals differing in brain size behave, how such individuals are distributed and how brain size is related to life history and fitness components. Brain mass of the barn swallow Hirundo rustica was strongly predicted by external head volume, explaining 99.5% of the variance, allowing for repeatable estimates of head volume as a reflection of brain size. Repeatability of head volume within and between years was high, suggesting that measurement errors were small. In a 2 years study of 501 individual adult barn swallows, I showed that head volume differed between sexes and age classes, with yearlings having smaller and more variable heads than older individuals, and females having smaller and more variable heads than males. Large head volume was not a consequence of large body size, which was a poor predictor of head volume. Birds with large heads arrived early from spring migration, independent of sex and age, indicating that migratory performance may have an important cognitive component. Head volume significantly predicted capture date and recapture probability, suggesting that head volume is related to learning ability, although morphological traits such as wing length, aspect ratio and wing area were unimportant predictors. Intensity of defence of offspring increased with head volume in females, but not in males. Barn swallows with large heads aggregated in large colonies, suggesting that individuals with large heads were more common in socially complex environments. These results suggest that brain size is currently under natural and sexual selection, and that micro-evolutionary processes affecting brain size can be studied under field conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- A P Møller
- Laboratoire d'Ecologie, Systématique et Evolution, Université Paris-Sud, Bâtiment, Orsay Cedex, France.
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45
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Marvin GA. Effect of Caudal Autotomy on Aquatic and Terrestrial Locomotor Performance in Two Desmognathine Salamander Species. COPEIA 2010. [DOI: 10.1643/cp-09-188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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46
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Cooper WE, Vitt LJ. Blue Tails and Autotomy: Enhancement of Predation Avoidance in Juvenile Skinks. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0310.1985.tb00518.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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47
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Fleming PA, Verburgt L, Scantlebury M, Medger K, Bateman PW. Jettisoning ballast or fuel? Caudal autotomy and locomotory energetics of the Cape dwarf gecko Lygodactylus capensis (Gekkonidae). Physiol Biochem Zool 2010; 82:756-65. [PMID: 19758092 DOI: 10.1086/605953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Many lizard species will shed their tail as a defensive response (e.g., to escape a putative predator or aggressive conspecific). This caudal autotomy incurs a number of costs as a result of loss of the tail itself, loss of resources (i.e., stored in the tail or due to the cost of regeneration), and altered behavior. Few studies have examined the metabolic costs of caudal autotomy. A previous study demonstrated that geckos can move faster after tail loss as a result of reduced weight or friction with the substrate; however, there are no data for the effects of caudal autotomy on locomotory energetics. We examined the effect of tail loss on locomotory costs in the Cape dwarf gecko Lygodactylus capensis ( approximately 0.9 g) using a novel method for collecting data on small lizards, a method previously used for arthropods. We measured CO(2) production during 5-10 min of exhaustive exercise (in response to stimulus) and during a 45-min recovery period. During exercise, we measured speed (for each meter moved) as well as total distance traveled. Contrary to our expectations, tailless geckos overall expended less effort in escape running, moving both slower and for a shorter distance, compared with when they were intact. Tailless geckos also exhibited lower excess CO(2) production (CO(2) production in excess of normal resting metabolic rate) during exercising. This may be due to reduced metabolically active tissue (tails represent 8.7% of their initial body mass). An alternative suggestion is that a change in energy substrate use may take place after tail loss. This is an intriguing finding that warrants future biochemical investigation before we can predict the relative costs of tail loss that lizards might experience under natural conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia A Fleming
- School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia 6150, Australia
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48
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Sex differences in antipredator tail-waving displays of the diurnal yellow-headed gecko Gonatodes albogularis from tropical forests of Colombia. J ETHOL 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/s10164-009-0186-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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49
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Vervust B, Van Dongen S, Grbac I, Van Damme R. The mystery of the missing toes: extreme levels of natural mutilation in island lizard populations. Funct Ecol 2009. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2435.2009.01580.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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50
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Russell AP, Bauer AM. Them. caudifemoralis longusand its relationship to caudal autotomy and locomotion in lizards (Reptilia: Sauna). J Zool (1987) 2009. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7998.1992.tb04349.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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