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Folding mechanisms of periplasmic proteins. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2013; 1843:1517-28. [PMID: 24239929 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2013.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2013] [Revised: 10/11/2013] [Accepted: 10/16/2013] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
More than one fifth of the proteins encoded by the genome of Escherichia coli are destined to the bacterial cell envelope. Over the past 20years, the mechanisms by which envelope proteins reach their three-dimensional structure have been intensively studied, leading to the discovery of an intricate network of periplasmic folding helpers whose members have distinct but complementary roles. For instance, the correct assembly of ß-barrel proteins containing disulfide bonds depends both on chaperones like SurA and Skp for transport across the periplasm and on protein folding catalysts like DsbA and DsbC for disulfide bond formation. In this review, we provide an overview of the current knowledge about the complex network of protein folding helpers present in the periplasm of E. coli and highlight the questions that remain unsolved. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Protein trafficking and secretion in bacteria. Guest Editors: Anastassios Economou and Ross Dalbey.
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Le Y, Peng J, Wu H, Sun J, Shao W. An approach to the production of soluble protein from a fungal gene encoding an aggregation-prone xylanase in Escherichia coli. PLoS One 2011; 6:e18489. [PMID: 21494625 PMCID: PMC3072991 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0018489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2010] [Accepted: 03/09/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of new procedures and protocols that allow researchers to obtain recombinant proteins is of fundamental importance in the biotechnology field. A strategy was explored to overcome inclusion-body formation observed when expressing an aggregation-prone fungal xylanase in Escherichia coli. pHsh is an expression plasmid that uses a synthetic heat-shock (Hsh) promoter, in which gene expression is regulated by an alternative sigma factor (σ(32)). A derivative of pHsh was constructed by fusing a signal peptide to xynA2 gene to facilitate export of the recombinant protein to the periplasm. The xylanase was produced in a soluble form. Three factors were essential to achieving such soluble expression of the xylanase: 1) the target gene was under the control of the Hsh promoter, 2) the gene product was exported into the periplasm, and 3) gene expression was induced by a temperature upshift. For the first time we report the expression of periplasmic proteins under the control of an Hsh promoter regulated by σ(32). One unique feature of this approach was that over 200 copies of the Hsh promoter in an E. coli cell significantly increased the concentration of σ(32). The growth inhibition of the recombinant cells corresponded to an increase in the levels of soluble periplasmic protein. Therefore, an alternative protocol was designed to induce gene expression from pHsh-ex to obtain high levels of active soluble enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yilin Le
- Research Center for Biotechnology and Biomass
Energy and College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing,
Jiangsu, PR China
- Biofuels Institute, School of Environment,
Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Jingjing Peng
- Research Center for Biotechnology and Biomass
Energy and College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing,
Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Huawei Wu
- Research Center for Biotechnology and Biomass
Energy and College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing,
Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Jianzhong Sun
- Biofuels Institute, School of Environment,
Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Weilan Shao
- Research Center for Biotechnology and Biomass
Energy and College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing,
Jiangsu, PR China
- * E-mail:
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Contribution of proteomics toward solving the fascinating mysteries of the biogenesis of the envelope of Escherichia coli. Proteomics 2009; 10:771-84. [DOI: 10.1002/pmic.200900461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Roles of periplasmic chaperone proteins in the biogenesis of serine protease autotransporters of Enterobacteriaceae. J Bacteriol 2009; 191:6571-83. [PMID: 19734313 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00754-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The serine protease autotransporters of Enterobacteriaceae (SPATEs) represent a large family of virulence factors. The prevailing model for autotransporter secretion comprises entry to the periplasm via the Sec apparatus, followed by an obscure series of steps in which the C terminus of the periplasmic species inserts into the outer membrane as a beta-barrel protein, accompanied by translocation of the passenger domain to the bacterial cell surface. Little is known about the fate of the autotransporter proteins in the periplasm, including whether accessory periplasmic proteins are involved in translocation to the external milieu. Here we studied the role of the major periplasmic chaperones in the biogenesis of EspP, a prototype SPATE protein produced by Escherichia coli O157:H7. The yeast two-hybrid approach, secretion analysis of chaperone mutant strains, and surface plasmon resonance analysis (SPR) revealed direct protein-protein interactions between the periplasmic SurA and DegP chaperones and either the EspP-beta or EspP passenger domains. The secretion of EspP was moderately reduced in the surA and skp mutant strains but severely impaired in the degP background. Site-directed mutagenesis of highly conserved aromatic amino acid residues in the SPATE family resulted in approximately 80% reduction of EspP secretion. Synthetic peptides containing aromatic residues derived from the EspP passenger domain blocked DegP and SurA binding to the passenger domain. SPR suggested direct protein-protein interaction between periplasmic chaperones and the unfolded EspP passenger domain. Our data suggest that translocation of AT proteins may require accessory factors, calling into question the moniker "autotransporter."
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Effect of folding factors in rescuing unstable heterologous lipase B to enhance its overexpression in the periplasm of Escherichia coli. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2008; 79:1035-44. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-008-1514-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2008] [Revised: 04/16/2008] [Accepted: 04/19/2008] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Mohamedmohaideen NN, Palaninathan SK, Morin PM, Williams BJ, Braunstein M, Tichy SE, Locker J, Russell DH, Jacobs WR, Sacchettini JC. Structure and function of the virulence-associated high-temperature requirement A of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Biochemistry 2008; 47:6092-102. [PMID: 18479146 DOI: 10.1021/bi701929m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The high-temperature requirement A (HtrA) family of serine proteases has been shown to play an important role in the environmental and cellular stress damage control system in Escherichia coli. Mycobacterium tuberculosis ( Mtb) has three putative HtrA-like proteases, HtrA1, HtrA2, and HtrA3. The deletion of htrA2 gives attenuated virulence in a mouse model of TB. Biochemical analysis reveals that HtrA2 can function both as a protease and as a chaperone. The three-dimensional structure of HtrA2 determined at 2.0 A resolution shows that the protease domains form the central core of the trimer and the PDZ domains extend to the periphery. Unlike E. coli DegS and DegP, the protease is naturally active due to the formation of the serine protease-like catalytic triad and its uniquely designed oxyanion hole. Both protease and PDZ binding pockets of each HtrA2 molecule are occupied by autoproteolytic peptide products and reveal clues for a novel autoregulatory mechanism that might have significant importance in HtrA-associated virulence of Mtb.
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Chou CP. Engineering cell physiology to enhance recombinant protein production in Escherichia coli. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2007; 76:521-32. [PMID: 17571257 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-007-1039-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2007] [Revised: 05/08/2007] [Accepted: 05/21/2007] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The advent of recombinant DNA technology has revolutionized the strategies for protein production. Due to the well-characterized genome and a variety of mature tools available for genetic manipulation, Escherichia coli is still the most common workhorse for recombinant protein production. However, the culture for industrial applications often presents E. coli cells with a growth condition that is significantly different from their natural inhabiting environment in the gastrointestinal tract, resulting in deterioration in cell physiology and limitation in cell's productivity. It has been recognized that innovative design of genetically engineered strains can highly increase the bioprocess yield with minimum investment on the capital and operating costs. Nevertheless, most of these genetic manipulations, by which traits are implanted into the workhorse through recombinant DNA technology, for enhancing recombinant protein productivity often translate into the challenges that deteriorate cell physiology or even jeopardize cell survival. An in-depth understanding of these challenges and their corresponding cellular response at the molecular level becomes crucial for developing superior strains that are more physiologically adaptive to the production environment to improve culture productivity. With the accumulated knowledge in cell physiology, whose importance to gene overexpression was to some extent undervalued previously, this review is intended to focus on the recent biotechnological advancement in engineering cell physiology to enhance recombinant protein production in E. coli.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Perry Chou
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON, Canada, N2L 3G1.
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Wu MS, Pan KL, Chou CP. Effect of heat-shock proteins for relieving physiological stress and enhancing the production of penicillin acylase inEscherichia coli. Biotechnol Bioeng 2007; 96:956-66. [PMID: 16977620 DOI: 10.1002/bit.21161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
High-level expression of recombinant penicillin acylase (PAC) using the strong trc promoter system in Escherichia coli is frequently limited by the processing and folding of PAC precursors (proPAC) in the periplasm, resulting in physiological stress and inclusion body formation in this compartment. Periplasmic heat-shock proteins with protease or chaperone activity potentially offer a promise for overcoming this technical hurdle. In this study, the effect of the two genes encoding periplasmic heat-shock proteins, that is degP and fkpA, on pac overexpression was investigated and manipulation of the two genes to enhance the production of recombinant PAC was demonstrated. Both DeltadegP and DeltafkpA mutants showed defective culture performance primarily due to growth arrest. However, pac expression level was not seriously affected by the mutations, indicating that the two proteins were not directly involved in the pathway for periplasmic processing of proPAC. The growth defect caused by the two mutations (i.e., DeltadegP and DeltafkpA) was complemented by either one of the wild-type proteins, implying that the function of the two proteins could partially overlap in cells overexpressing pac. The possible role that the two heat-shock proteins played for suppression of physiological stress caused by pac overexpression is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Shen Wu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Feng Chia University, Taichung, Taiwan
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Narayanan N, Xu Y, Chou CP. High-Level Gene Expression for Recombinant Penicillin Acylase Production Using thearaBPromoter System inEscherichia coli. Biotechnol Prog 2006. [DOI: 10.1002/bp060135u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Xu Y, Weng CL, Narayanan N, Hsieh MY, Anderson WA, Scharer JM, Moo-Young M, Chou CP. Chaperone-mediated folding and maturation of the penicillin acylase precursor in the cytoplasm of Escherichia coli. Appl Environ Microbiol 2005; 71:6247-53. [PMID: 16204545 PMCID: PMC1265976 DOI: 10.1128/aem.71.10.6247-6253.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Expression of the leaderless pac gene (LL pac), which lacks the coding region for the signal peptide of penicillin acylase (PAC), in Escherichia coli was conducted. It was demonstrated that the PAC precursor, proPAC, can be produced and even processed to form mature PAC in the cytoplasm, indicating that the posttranslational processing steps for PAC maturation can occur in both the periplasm and the cytoplasm of E. coli. The outcome of proPAC folding and PAC maturation could be affected by several factors, such as inducer type, proPAC formation rate, and chaperone availability. Misfolding of proPAC in the cytoplasm could be partially resolved through the coexpression of cytoplasmic chaperones, such as trigger factor, GroEL/ES, or DnaK/J-GrpE. The three chaperones tested showed different extents of the effect on proPAC solublization and PAC maturation, and trigger factor had the most prominent one. However, the chaperone-mediated solublization of proPAC did not guarantee its maturation, which is usually limited by the first autoproteolytic step. It was observed that arabinose could act as an effective inducer for the induction of LL pac expression regulated by the lac-derived promoter system of trc. In addition, PAC maturation could be highly facilitated by arabinose supplementation and coexpression of trigger factor, suggesting that the coordination of chaperone systems with proper culture conditions could dramatically impact recombinant protein production. This study suggests that folding/misfolding of proPAC could be a major step limiting the overproduction of PAC in E. coli and that the problem could be resolved through the search for appropriate chaperones for coexpression. It also demonstrates the analogy in the issues of proPAC misfolding as well as the expression bottleneck occurring in the cytoplasm (i.e., LL pac expression) and those occurring in the periplasm (i.e., wild-type pac expression).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yali Xu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
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Pan KL, Hsiao HC, Weng CL, Wu MS, Chou CP. Roles of DegP in prevention of protein misfolding in the periplasm upon overexpression of penicillin acylase in Escherichia coli. J Bacteriol 2003; 185:3020-30. [PMID: 12730160 PMCID: PMC154077 DOI: 10.1128/jb.185.10.3020-3030.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Enhancement of the production of soluble recombinant penicillin acylase in Escherichia coli via coexpression of a periplasmic protease/chaperone, DegP, was demonstrated. Coexpression of DegP resulted in a shift of in vivo penicillin acylase (PAC) synthesis flux from the nonproductive pathway to the productive one when pac was overexpressed. The number of inclusion bodies, which consist primarily of protein aggregates of PAC precursors in the periplasm, was highly reduced, and the specific PAC activity was highly increased. DegP was a heat shock protein induced in response to pac overexpression, suggesting that the protein could possibly suppress the physiological toxicity caused by pac overexpression. Coexpression of DegP(S210A), a DegP mutant without protease activity but retaining chaperone activity, could not suppress the physiological toxicity, suggesting that DegP protease activity was primarily responsible for the suppression, possibly by degradation of abnormal proteins when pac was overexpressed. However, a shortage of periplasmic protease activity was not the only reason for the deterioration in culture performance upon pac overexpression because coexpression of a DegP-homologous periplasmic protease, DegQ or DegS, could not suppress the physiological toxicity. The chaperone activity of DegP is proposed to be another possible factor contributing to the suppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kao-Lu Pan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Feng Chia University, Taichung, Taiwan 407, Republic of China
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