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Carneiro L, Fenech C, Liénard F, Grall S, Abed B, Haydar J, Allard C, Desmoulins L, Paccoud R, Brindisi MC, Mouillot T, Brondel L, Fioramonti X, Pénicaud L, Jacquin-Piques A, Leloup C. Hypothalamic Glucose Hypersensitivity-Induced Insulin Secretion in the Obese Zücker Rat Is Reversed by Central Ghrelin Treatment. Antioxid Redox Signal 2024; 40:837-849. [PMID: 36656675 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2022.0031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Aims: Part of hypothalamic (mediobasal hypothalamus [MBH]) neurons detect changes in blood glucose levels that in turn coordinate the vagal control of insulin secretion. This control cascade requires the production of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mROS), which is altered in models of obesity and insulin resistance. Obese, insulin-resistant Zücker rats are characterized by hypothalamic hypersensitivity to glucose. This initiates an abnormal vagus-induced insulin secretion, associated with an overproduction of mROS in response to a low glucose dose. Here, we hypothesized that ghrelin, known to buffer reactive oxygen species (ROS) via mitochondrial function, may be a major component of the hypothalamic glucose hypersensitivity in the hypoghrelinemic obese Zücker rat. Results: Hypothalamic glucose hypersensitivity-induced insulin secretion of Zücker obese rats was reversed by ghrelin pretreatment. The overproduction of MBH mROS in response to a low glucose load no longer occurred in obese rats that had previously received the cerebral ghrelin infusion. This decrease in mROS production was accompanied by a normalization of oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). Conversely, blocking the action of ghrelin with a growth hormone secretagogue receptor antagonist in a model of hyperghrelinemia (fasted rats) completely restored hypothalamic glucose sensing-induced insulin secretion that was almost absent in this physiological situation. Accordingly, ROS signaling and mitochondrial activity were increased by the ghrelin receptor antagonist. Innovation: These results demonstrate for the first time that ghrelin addressed only to the brain could have a protective effect on the defective control of insulin secretion in the insulin-resistant, hypoghrelinemic obese subject. Conclusions: Ghrelin, through its action on OXPHOS, modulates mROS signaling in response to cerebral hyperglycemia and the consequent vagal control of insulin secretion. In insulin-resistant obese states, brain hypoghrelinemia could be responsible for the nervous defect in insulin secretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lionel Carneiro
- Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, UMR Université de Bourgogne, CNRS 6265, INRAE 1324, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
- INSERM U1220, Institut de Recherche en Santé Digestive (IRSD), Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse III, CHU Purpan, Toulouse, France
| | - Claire Fenech
- Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, UMR Université de Bourgogne, CNRS 6265, INRAE 1324, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Fabienne Liénard
- Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, UMR Université de Bourgogne, CNRS 6265, INRAE 1324, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Sylvie Grall
- Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, UMR Université de Bourgogne, CNRS 6265, INRAE 1324, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Besma Abed
- Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, UMR Université de Bourgogne, CNRS 6265, INRAE 1324, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Joulia Haydar
- Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, UMR Université de Bourgogne, CNRS 6265, INRAE 1324, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Camille Allard
- Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, UMR Université de Bourgogne, CNRS 6265, INRAE 1324, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
- University of Bordeaux, INSERM U1215, Neurocentre Magendie, Bordeaux, France
| | - Lucie Desmoulins
- Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, UMR Université de Bourgogne, CNRS 6265, INRAE 1324, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Romain Paccoud
- Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, UMR Université de Bourgogne, CNRS 6265, INRAE 1324, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Marie-Claude Brindisi
- Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, UMR Université de Bourgogne, CNRS 6265, INRAE 1324, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Thomas Mouillot
- Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, UMR Université de Bourgogne, CNRS 6265, INRAE 1324, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Laurent Brondel
- Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, UMR Université de Bourgogne, CNRS 6265, INRAE 1324, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Xavier Fioramonti
- Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, UMR Université de Bourgogne, CNRS 6265, INRAE 1324, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
- NutriNeuro, UMR 1286 INRAE, Bordeaux University, Bordeaux INP, Neurocampus, Bordeaux, France
| | - Luc Pénicaud
- Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, UMR Université de Bourgogne, CNRS 6265, INRAE 1324, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
- STROMALab, CNRS ERL 5311, Toulouse, France
| | - Agnès Jacquin-Piques
- Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, UMR Université de Bourgogne, CNRS 6265, INRAE 1324, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Corinne Leloup
- Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, UMR Université de Bourgogne, CNRS 6265, INRAE 1324, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
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Hill TG, Hill DJ. The Importance of Intra-Islet Communication in the Function and Plasticity of the Islets of Langerhans during Health and Diabetes. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:4070. [PMID: 38612880 PMCID: PMC11012451 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25074070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2024] [Revised: 03/27/2024] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Islets of Langerhans are anatomically dispersed within the pancreas and exhibit regulatory coordination between islets in response to nutritional and inflammatory stimuli. However, within individual islets, there is also multi-faceted coordination of function between individual beta-cells, and between beta-cells and other endocrine and vascular cell types. This is mediated partly through circulatory feedback of the major secreted hormones, insulin and glucagon, but also by autocrine and paracrine actions within the islet by a range of other secreted products, including somatostatin, urocortin 3, serotonin, glucagon-like peptide-1, acetylcholine, and ghrelin. Their availability can be modulated within the islet by pericyte-mediated regulation of microvascular blood flow. Within the islet, both endocrine progenitor cells and the ability of endocrine cells to trans-differentiate between phenotypes can alter endocrine cell mass to adapt to changed metabolic circumstances, regulated by the within-islet trophic environment. Optimal islet function is precariously balanced due to the high metabolic rate required by beta-cells to synthesize and secrete insulin, and they are susceptible to oxidative and endoplasmic reticular stress in the face of high metabolic demand. Resulting changes in paracrine dynamics within the islets can contribute to the emergence of Types 1, 2 and gestational diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas G. Hill
- Oxford Centre for Diabetes, Endocrinology, and Metabolism, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DU, UK
| | - David J. Hill
- Lawson Health Research Institute, St. Joseph’s Health Care, London, ON N6A 4V2, Canada;
- Departments of Medicine, Physiology and Pharmacology, Western University, London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada
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3
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Yang J, Yan Y, Yin X, Liu X, Reshetov IV, Karalkin PA, Li Q, Huang RL. Bioengineering and vascularization strategies for islet organoids: advancing toward diabetes therapy. Metabolism 2024; 152:155786. [PMID: 38211697 DOI: 10.1016/j.metabol.2024.155786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Revised: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 01/13/2024]
Abstract
Diabetes presents a pressing healthcare crisis, necessitating innovative solutions. Organoid technologies have rapidly advanced, leading to the emergence of bioengineering islet organoids as an unlimited source of insulin-producing cells for treating insulin-dependent diabetes. This advancement surpasses the need for cadaveric islet transplantation. However, clinical translation of this approach faces two major limitations: immature endocrine function and the absence of a perfusable vasculature compared to primary human islets. In this review, we summarize the latest developments in bioengineering functional islet organoids in vitro and promoting vascularization of organoid grafts before and after transplantation. We highlight the crucial roles of the vasculature in ensuring long-term survival, maturation, and functionality of islet organoids. Additionally, we discuss key considerations that must be addressed before clinical translation of islet organoid-based therapy, including functional immaturity, undesired heterogeneity, and potential tumorigenic risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Yang
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, China; Shanghai Institute for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, China
| | - Yuxin Yan
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, China; Shanghai Institute for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, China
| | - Xiya Yin
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, China; Shanghai Institute for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, China; Department of Plastic and Burn Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, China
| | - Xiangqi Liu
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, China; Shanghai Institute for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, China
| | - Igor V Reshetov
- Institute of Cluster Oncology, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 127473 Moscow, Russia
| | - Pavel A Karalkin
- Institute of Cluster Oncology, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 127473 Moscow, Russia
| | - Qingfeng Li
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, China; Shanghai Institute for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, China.
| | - Ru-Lin Huang
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, China; Shanghai Institute for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, China.
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Russo C, Valle MS, Russo A, Malaguarnera L. The Interplay between Ghrelin and Microglia in Neuroinflammation: Implications for Obesity and Neurodegenerative Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232113432. [PMID: 36362220 PMCID: PMC9654207 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232113432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2022] [Revised: 10/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous studies have shown that microglia are capable of producing a wide range of chemokines to promote inflammatory processes within the central nervous system (CNS). These cells share many phenotypical and functional characteristics with macrophages, suggesting that microglia participate in innate immune responses in the brain. Neuroinflammation induces neurometabolic alterations and increases in energy consumption. Microglia may constitute an important therapeutic target in neuroinflammation. Recent research has attempted to clarify the role of Ghre signaling in microglia on the regulation of energy balance, obesity, neuroinflammation and the occurrence of neurodegenerative diseases. These studies strongly suggest that Ghre modulates microglia activity and thus affects the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases. This review aims to summarize what is known from the current literature on the way in which Ghre modulates microglial activity during neuroinflammation and their impact on neurometabolic alterations in neurodegenerative diseases. Understanding the role of Ghre in microglial activation/inhibition regulation could provide promising strategies for downregulating neuroinflammation and consequently for diminishing negative neurological outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Russo
- Section of Pathology, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Maria Stella Valle
- Laboratory of Neuro-Biomechanics, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
- Section of Physiology, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Antonella Russo
- Section of Physiology, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Lucia Malaguarnera
- Section of Pathology, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
- Correspondence:
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Ringuet MT, Furness JB, Furness SGB. G protein-coupled receptor interactions and modification of signalling involving the ghrelin receptor, GHSR1a. J Neuroendocrinol 2022; 34:e13077. [PMID: 34931385 DOI: 10.1111/jne.13077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a (GHSR1a) is intriguing because of its potential as a therapeutic target and its diverse molecular interactions. Initial studies of the receptor focused on the potential therapeutic ability for growth hormone (GH) release to reduce wasting in aging individuals, as well as food intake regulation for treatment of cachexia. Known roles of GHSR1a now extend to regulation of neurogenesis, learning and memory, gastrointestinal motility, glucose/lipid metabolism, the cardiovascular system, neuronal protection, motivational salience, and hedonic feeding. Ghrelin, the endogenous agonist of GHSR1a, is primarily located in the stomach and is absent from the central nervous system (CNS), including the spinal cord. However, ghrelin in the circulation does have access to a small number of CNS sites, including the arcuate nucleus, which is important in feeding control. At some sites, such as at somatotrophs, GHSR1a has high constitutive activity. Typically, ghrelin-dependent and constitutive GHSR1a activation occurs via Gαq/11 pathways. In vitro and in vivo data suggest that GHSR1a heterodimerises with multiple G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), including dopamine D1 and D2, serotonin 2C, orexin, oxytocin and melanocortin 3 receptors (MCR3), as well as the MCR3 accessory protein, MRAP2, providing possible mechanisms for its many physiological effects. In all cases, the receptor interaction changes downstream signalling and the responses to receptor agonists. This review discusses the signalling mechanisms of GHSR1a alone and in combination with other GPCRs, and explores the physiological consequences of GHSR1a coupling with other GPCRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitchell Ty Ringuet
- Department of Anatomy and Physiology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - John Barton Furness
- Department of Anatomy and Physiology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Parkville, VIC, Australia
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6
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Ismail M, Stagling S, Lundberg A, Nystrom FH. A cross-over study of postprandial effects from moist snuff and red wine on metabolic rate, appetite-related hormones and glucose. Drug Alcohol Depend 2022; 236:109479. [PMID: 35580478 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2022.109479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Revised: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To compare acute effects of moist snuff with or without nicotine and red wine with or without alcohol on prandial hormones and metabolism. BASIC PROCEDURES AND METHODS Two deciliters of wine, with or without alcohol, were taken together with a standardized supervised meal in 14 healthy women and men. All participants also combined the meal with usage of with moist snuff, with or without nicotine. The snuff was replaced hourly at each of the four settings, i.e. snuff with or without nicotine combined with red wine with or without alcohol, that started at 0800 o'clock and were finished at noon. MAIN FINDINGS We found ghrelin levels to be more efficiently suppressed when drinking red wine with alcohol compared to non-alcoholic wine by analyzing area under the curve (AUC). AUC for regular wine was 370 ± 98 pg/ml x hours and 559 ± 154 pg/ml x hours for de-alcoholized red wine, p < 0.0001 by general linear model. The postprandial metabolic rate was further elevated following alcohol containing red wine compared with non-alcoholic red wine (p = 0.022). Although glucose levels were not uniformly lower after alcoholic red wine, we found lowered glucose levels 3 h after the meal (mean glucose wine: 4.38 ± 0.96 mmol/l, non-alcoholic wine: 4.81 ± 0.77 mmol/l, p = 0.005). Nicotine-containing moist snuff (AUC: 1406 ± 149 nmol/ml x hours) elevated the levels of serum cortisol compared with nicotine-free snuff (AUC: 1268 ± 119 nmol/ml x hours, p = 0.005). We found no effects of nicotine or alcohol on feelings of satiety. CONCLUSIONS Alcohol in red wine augmented the postprandial suppression of ghrelin and it also lowered postprandial glucose 3 h post-meal. These effects are in line with observational trials linking regular intake of moderate amounts of red wine with lower risk for diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Midean Ismail
- Department of Health Medicine and Caring Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Samuel Stagling
- Department of Health Medicine and Caring Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Anna Lundberg
- Department of Health Medicine and Caring Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Fredrik H Nystrom
- Department of Health Medicine and Caring Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden.
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7
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Piper NBC, Whitfield EA, Stewart GD, Xu X, Furness SGB. Targeting appetite and satiety in diabetes and obesity, via G protein-coupled receptors. Biochem Pharmacol 2022; 202:115115. [PMID: 35671790 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2022.115115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Type 2 diabetes and obesity have reached pandemic proportions throughout the world, so much so that the World Health Organisation coined the term "Globesity" to help encapsulate the magnitude of the problem. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are highly tractable drug targets due to their wide involvement in all aspects of physiology and pathophysiology, indeed, GPCRs are the targets of approximately 30% of the currently approved drugs. GPCRs are also broadly involved in key physiologies that underlie type 2 diabetes and obesity including feeding reward, appetite and satiety, regulation of blood glucose levels, energy homeostasis and adipose function. Despite this, only two GPCRs are the target of approved pharmaceuticals for treatment of type 2 diabetes and obesity. In this review we discuss the role of these, and select other candidate GPCRs, involved in various facets of type 2 diabetic or obese pathophysiology, how they might be targeted and the potential reasons why pharmaceuticals against these targets have not progressed to clinical use. Finally, we provide a perspective on the current development pipeline of anti-obesity drugs that target GPCRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noah B C Piper
- Receptor Transducer Coupling Laboratory, School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Emily A Whitfield
- Receptor Transducer Coupling Laboratory, School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Gregory D Stewart
- Drug Discovery Biology Laboratory, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Department of Pharmacology Monash University, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Xiaomeng Xu
- Drug Discovery Biology Laboratory, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Department of Pharmacology Monash University, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Sebastian G B Furness
- Receptor Transducer Coupling Laboratory, School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia; Drug Discovery Biology Laboratory, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Department of Pharmacology Monash University, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia.
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Dezaki K, Yada T. Status of ghrelin as an islet hormone and paracrine/autocrine regulator of insulin secretion. Peptides 2022; 148:170681. [PMID: 34728253 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2021.170681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Revised: 10/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Ghrelin is expressed in the pancreatic islet cells as well as the stomach. In the perfused pancreas and isolated islets, GHS-R antagonism, ghrelin immunoneutralization and ghrelin-knockout (Ghr-KO) all increase glucose-induced insulin release. Thus, pharmacological, immunological and genetic blockades of ghrelin in the pancreatic islets all markedly augment glucose-induced insulin release, showing that islet-derived ghrelin physiologically restricts insulin release in rodents. In this review, we focus on the current understanding of the following key questions: 1) from which islet cells ghrelin is released, 2) on which islet cells ghrelin acts, and 3) mechanisms by which the islet-derived ghrelin inhibits insulin secretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katsuya Dezaki
- Iryo Sosei University, Faculty of Pharmacy, 5-5-1, Chuodai Iino, Iwaki, Fukushima, 970-8551, Japan.
| | - Toshihiko Yada
- Kansai Electric Power Medical Research Institute, Center for Integrative Physiology, Division of Integrative Physiology, 1-5-6 Minatojimaminamimachi, Chuo-ku, Kobe, 650-0047, Japan; Division of Diabetes, Metabolism and Endocrinology, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-2 Kusunoki-Cho, Chuo-Ku, Kobe, 650-0017, Japan.
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9
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Napolitano T, Avolio F, Silvano S, Forcisi S, Pfeifer A, Vieira A, Navarro-Sanz S, Friano ME, Ayachi C, Garrido-Utrilla A, Atlija J, Hadzic B, Becam J, Sousa-De-Veiga A, Plaisant MD, Balaji S, Pisani DF, Mondin M, Schmitt-Kopplin P, Amri EZ, Collombat P. Gfi1 Loss Protects against Two Models of Induced Diabetes. Cells 2021; 10:cells10112805. [PMID: 34831029 PMCID: PMC8616283 DOI: 10.3390/cells10112805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 10/07/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Although several approaches have revealed much about individual factors that regulate pancreatic development, we have yet to fully understand their complicated interplay during pancreas morphogenesis. Gfi1 is transcription factor specifically expressed in pancreatic acinar cells, whose role in pancreas cells fate identity and specification is still elusive. Methods: In order to gain further insight into the function of this factor in the pancreas, we generated animals deficient for Gfi1 specifically in the pancreas. Gfi1 conditional knockout animals were phenotypically characterized by immunohistochemistry, RT-qPCR, and RNA scope. To assess the role of Gfi1 in the pathogenesis of diabetes, we challenged Gfi1-deficient mice with two models of induced hyperglycemia: long-term high-fat/high-sugar feeding and streptozotocin injections. Results: Interestingly, mutant mice did not show any obvious deleterious phenotype. However, in depth analyses demonstrated a significant decrease in pancreatic amylase expression, leading to a diminution in intestinal carbohydrates processing and thus glucose absorption. In fact, Gfi1-deficient mice were found resistant to diet-induced hyperglycemia, appearing normoglycemic even after long-term high-fat/high-sugar diet. Another feature observed in mutant acinar cells was the misexpression of ghrelin, a hormone previously suggested to exhibit anti-apoptotic effects on β-cells in vitro. Impressively, Gfi1 mutant mice were found to be resistant to the cytotoxic and diabetogenic effects of high-dose streptozotocin administrations, displaying a negligible loss of β-cells and an imperturbable normoglycemia. Conclusions: Together, these results demonstrate that Gfi1 could turn to be extremely valuable for the development of new therapies and could thus open new research avenues in the context of diabetes research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiziana Napolitano
- Faculté des Sciences, Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, Inserm, iBV, Parc Valrose, 06108 Nice, France; (T.N.); (S.S.); (A.P.); (A.V.); (M.E.F.); (C.A.); (A.G.-U.); (J.B.); (A.S.-D.-V.); (M.D.P.); (E.-Z.A.)
| | - Fabio Avolio
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, 5230 Odense, Denmark;
| | - Serena Silvano
- Faculté des Sciences, Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, Inserm, iBV, Parc Valrose, 06108 Nice, France; (T.N.); (S.S.); (A.P.); (A.V.); (M.E.F.); (C.A.); (A.G.-U.); (J.B.); (A.S.-D.-V.); (M.D.P.); (E.-Z.A.)
| | - Sara Forcisi
- Research Unit Analytical BioGeoChemistry, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environment Health, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany; (S.F.); (P.S.-K.)
- German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Anja Pfeifer
- Faculté des Sciences, Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, Inserm, iBV, Parc Valrose, 06108 Nice, France; (T.N.); (S.S.); (A.P.); (A.V.); (M.E.F.); (C.A.); (A.G.-U.); (J.B.); (A.S.-D.-V.); (M.D.P.); (E.-Z.A.)
| | - Andhira Vieira
- Faculté des Sciences, Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, Inserm, iBV, Parc Valrose, 06108 Nice, France; (T.N.); (S.S.); (A.P.); (A.V.); (M.E.F.); (C.A.); (A.G.-U.); (J.B.); (A.S.-D.-V.); (M.D.P.); (E.-Z.A.)
| | | | - Marika Elsa Friano
- Faculté des Sciences, Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, Inserm, iBV, Parc Valrose, 06108 Nice, France; (T.N.); (S.S.); (A.P.); (A.V.); (M.E.F.); (C.A.); (A.G.-U.); (J.B.); (A.S.-D.-V.); (M.D.P.); (E.-Z.A.)
| | - Chaïma Ayachi
- Faculté des Sciences, Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, Inserm, iBV, Parc Valrose, 06108 Nice, France; (T.N.); (S.S.); (A.P.); (A.V.); (M.E.F.); (C.A.); (A.G.-U.); (J.B.); (A.S.-D.-V.); (M.D.P.); (E.-Z.A.)
| | - Anna Garrido-Utrilla
- Faculté des Sciences, Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, Inserm, iBV, Parc Valrose, 06108 Nice, France; (T.N.); (S.S.); (A.P.); (A.V.); (M.E.F.); (C.A.); (A.G.-U.); (J.B.); (A.S.-D.-V.); (M.D.P.); (E.-Z.A.)
| | | | - Biljana Hadzic
- Pediatric Oncology & Hematology Department, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nice, Hopital Archet 2, 06202 Nice, France;
| | - Jérôme Becam
- Faculté des Sciences, Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, Inserm, iBV, Parc Valrose, 06108 Nice, France; (T.N.); (S.S.); (A.P.); (A.V.); (M.E.F.); (C.A.); (A.G.-U.); (J.B.); (A.S.-D.-V.); (M.D.P.); (E.-Z.A.)
| | - Anette Sousa-De-Veiga
- Faculté des Sciences, Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, Inserm, iBV, Parc Valrose, 06108 Nice, France; (T.N.); (S.S.); (A.P.); (A.V.); (M.E.F.); (C.A.); (A.G.-U.); (J.B.); (A.S.-D.-V.); (M.D.P.); (E.-Z.A.)
| | - Magali Dodille Plaisant
- Faculté des Sciences, Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, Inserm, iBV, Parc Valrose, 06108 Nice, France; (T.N.); (S.S.); (A.P.); (A.V.); (M.E.F.); (C.A.); (A.G.-U.); (J.B.); (A.S.-D.-V.); (M.D.P.); (E.-Z.A.)
| | | | - Didier F. Pisani
- Medicine Faculty, Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, LP2M, 06003 Nice, France;
| | - Magali Mondin
- Pôle Imagerie Photonique, Bordeaux Imaging Center, Université de Bordeaux, UMS 3420 CNRS-US4 Inserm, 33076 Bordeaux, France;
| | - Philippe Schmitt-Kopplin
- Research Unit Analytical BioGeoChemistry, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environment Health, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany; (S.F.); (P.S.-K.)
- German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Ez-Zoubir Amri
- Faculté des Sciences, Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, Inserm, iBV, Parc Valrose, 06108 Nice, France; (T.N.); (S.S.); (A.P.); (A.V.); (M.E.F.); (C.A.); (A.G.-U.); (J.B.); (A.S.-D.-V.); (M.D.P.); (E.-Z.A.)
| | - Patrick Collombat
- Faculté des Sciences, Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, Inserm, iBV, Parc Valrose, 06108 Nice, France; (T.N.); (S.S.); (A.P.); (A.V.); (M.E.F.); (C.A.); (A.G.-U.); (J.B.); (A.S.-D.-V.); (M.D.P.); (E.-Z.A.)
- Correspondence:
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10
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Wang X, Wang Y, Li X, Yu Z, Song C, Du Y. Nitrile-containing pharmaceuticals: target, mechanism of action, and their SAR studies. RSC Med Chem 2021; 12:1650-1671. [PMID: 34778767 PMCID: PMC8528211 DOI: 10.1039/d1md00131k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The nitrile group is an important functional group widely found in both pharmaceutical agents and natural products. More than 30 nitrile-containing pharmaceuticals have been approved by the FDA for the management of a broad range of clinical conditions in the last few decades. Incorporation of a nitrile group into lead compounds has gradually become a promising strategy in rational drug design as it can bring additional benefits including enhanced binding affinity to the target, improved pharmacokinetic profile of parent drugs, and reduced drug resistance. This paper reviews the existing drugs with a nitrile moiety that have been approved or in clinical trials, involving their targets, molecular mechanism of pharmacology and SAR studies, and classifies them into different categories based on their clinical usages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi Wang
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University Tianjin 300072 China
| | - Yuanxun Wang
- National Institution of Biological Sciences, Beijing No. 7 Science Park Road, Zhongguancun Life Science Park Beijing 102206 China
| | - Xuemin Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University Tianjin 300072 China
| | - Zhenyang Yu
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University Tianjin 300072 China
| | - Chun Song
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University Qingdao City Shandong Province 266237 China
| | - Yunfei Du
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University Tianjin 300072 China
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11
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Gupta D, Dowsett GKC, Mani BK, Shankar K, Osborne-Lawrence S, Metzger NP, Lam BYH, Yeo GSH, Zigman JM. High Coexpression of the Ghrelin and LEAP2 Receptor GHSR With Pancreatic Polypeptide in Mouse and Human Islets. Endocrinology 2021; 162:6325122. [PMID: 34289060 PMCID: PMC8379901 DOI: 10.1210/endocr/bqab148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Islets represent an important site of direct action of the hormone ghrelin, with expression of the ghrelin receptor (growth hormone secretagogue receptor; GHSR) having been localized variably to alpha cells, beta cells, and/or somatostatin (SST)-secreting delta cells. To our knowledge, GHSR expression by pancreatic polypeptide (PP)-expressing gamma cells has not been specifically investigated. Here, histochemical analyses of Ghsr-IRES-Cre × Cre-dependent ROSA26-yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) reporter mice showed 85% of GHSR-expressing islet cells coexpress PP, 50% coexpress SST, and 47% coexpress PP + SST. Analysis of single-cell transcriptomic data from mouse pancreas revealed 95% of Ghsr-expressing cells coexpress Ppy, 100% coexpress Sst, and 95% coexpress Ppy + Sst. This expression was restricted to gamma-cell and delta-cell clusters. Analysis of several single-cell human pancreatic transcriptome data sets revealed 59% of GHSR-expressing cells coexpress PPY, 95% coexpress SST, and 57% coexpress PPY + SST. This expression was prominent in delta-cell and beta-cell clusters, also occurring in other clusters including gamma cells and alpha cells. GHSR expression levels were upregulated by type 2 diabetes mellitus in beta cells. In mice, plasma PP positively correlated with fat mass and with plasma levels of the endogenous GHSR antagonist/inverse agonist LEAP2. Plasma PP also elevated on LEAP2 and synthetic GHSR antagonist administration. These data suggest that in addition to delta cells, beta cells, and alpha cells, PP-expressing pancreatic cells likely represent important direct targets for LEAP2 and/or ghrelin both in mice and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepali Gupta
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390-9077, USA
| | - Georgina K C Dowsett
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Metabolic Diseases Unit, University of Cambridge Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust–MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Bharath K Mani
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390-9077, USA
| | - Kripa Shankar
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390-9077, USA
| | - Sherri Osborne-Lawrence
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390-9077, USA
| | - Nathan P Metzger
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390-9077, USA
| | - Brian Y H Lam
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Metabolic Diseases Unit, University of Cambridge Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust–MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Giles S H Yeo
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Metabolic Diseases Unit, University of Cambridge Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust–MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
- Correspondence: Giles S. H. Yeo, PhD, Metabolic Diseases Unit, University of Cambridge Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome–MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, Box 289, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Hills Rd, Cambridge, CB2 0QQ, UK.
| | - Jeffrey M Zigman
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390-9077, USA
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390-9077, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390-9077, USA
- Correspondence: Jeffrey M. Zigman, MD, PhD, Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd, MC9077, Dallas, TX 75390-9077, USA.
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12
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Shankar K, Takemi S, Gupta D, Varshney S, Mani BK, Osborne-Lawrence S, Metzger NP, Richard CP, Berglund ED, Zigman JM. Ghrelin cell-expressed insulin receptors mediate meal- and obesity-induced declines in plasma ghrelin. JCI Insight 2021; 6:e146983. [PMID: 34473648 PMCID: PMC8492315 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.146983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Mechanisms underlying postprandial and obesity-associated plasma ghrelin reductions are incompletely understood. Here, using ghrelin cell-selective insulin receptor-KO (GhIRKO) mice, we tested the impact of insulin, acting via ghrelin cell-expressed insulin receptors (IRs), to suppress ghrelin secretion. Insulin reduced ghrelin secretion from cultured gastric mucosal cells of control mice but not from those of GhIRKO mice. Acute insulin challenge and insulin infusion during both hyperinsulinemic-hypoglycemic clamps and hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamps lowered plasma ghrelin in control mice but not GhIRKO mice. Thus, ghrelin cell-expressed IRs are required for insulin-mediated reductions in plasma ghrelin. Furthermore, interventions that naturally raise insulin (glucose gavage, refeeding following fasting, and chronic high-fat diet) also lowered plasma ghrelin only in control mice - not GhIRKO mice. Thus, meal- and obesity-associated increases in insulin, acting via ghrelin cell-expressed IRs, represent a major, direct negative modulator of ghrelin secretion in vivo, as opposed to ingested or metabolized macronutrients. Refed GhIRKO mice exhibited reduced plasma insulin, highlighting ghrelin's actions to inhibit insulin release via a feedback loop. Moreover, GhIRKO mice required reduced glucose infusion rates during hyperinsulinemic-hypoglycemic clamps, suggesting that suppressed ghrelin release resulting from direct insulin action on ghrelin cells usually limits ghrelin's full potential to protect against insulin-induced hypoglycemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kripa Shankar
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Shota Takemi
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
- Area of Regulatory Biology, Division of Life Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, Sakuraku, Saitama, Japan
| | - Deepali Gupta
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Salil Varshney
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Bharath K. Mani
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Sherri Osborne-Lawrence
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Nathan P. Metzger
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Corine P. Richard
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Eric D. Berglund
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Jeffrey M. Zigman
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, and
- Department of Psychiatry, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
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13
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Gupta D, Patterson AM, Osborne-Lawrence S, Bookout AL, Varshney S, Shankar K, Singh O, Metzger NP, Richard CP, Wyler SC, Elmquist JK, Zigman JM. Disrupting the ghrelin-growth hormone axis limits ghrelin's orexigenic but not glucoregulatory actions. Mol Metab 2021; 53:101258. [PMID: 34023483 PMCID: PMC8203846 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2021.101258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Acyl-ghrelin regulates eating, body weight, blood glucose, and GH secretion upon binding to its receptor GHSR (growth hormone secretagogue receptor; ghrelin receptor). GHSR is distributed in several brain regions and some peripheral cell-types including pituitary somatotrophs. The objective of the current study was to determine the functional significance of acyl-ghrelin's action on GHSR-expressing somatotrophs in mediating GH secretion and several of acyl-ghrelin's metabolic actions. Methods GH-IRES-Cre mice and loxP-flanked (floxed) GHSR mice were newly developed and then crossed to one another to generate mice that lacked GHSR selectively from somatotrophs. Following validation of mice with somatotroph-selective GHSR deletion, metabolic responses of these mice and control littermates were assessed following both acute and chronic acyl-ghrelin administration, a 24-h fast, and a prolonged 60% chronic caloric restriction protocol modeling starvation. Results In mice with somatotroph-selective GHSR deletion, a single peripheral injection of acyl-ghrelin failed to induce GH secretion or increase food intake, unlike wild-type and other littermate control groups. However, the usual acute blood glucose increase in response to the acyl-ghrelin bolus was preserved. Similarly, chronic s.c. acyl-ghrelin administration to mice with somatotroph-selective GHSR deletion failed to increase plasma GH, food intake, or body weight. Physiologically elevating plasma acyl-ghrelin via a 24-h fast also failed to raise plasma GH and resulted in a limited hyperphagic response upon food reintroduction in mice with somatotroph-selective GHSR deletion, although those mice nonetheless did not exhibit an exaggerated reduction in blood glucose. Physiologically elevating plasma acyl-ghrelin via a 15-day caloric restriction protocol which provided only 40% of usual daily calories failed to raise plasma GH in mice with somatotroph-selective GHSR deletion, although those mice did not exhibit life-threatening hypoglycemia. Conclusions These results reveal that direct engagement of GHSR-expressing somatotrophs is required for a peripheral ghrelin bolus to acutely stimulate GH secretion and the actions of chronic acyl-ghrelin delivery and physiological plasma acyl-ghrelin elevations to increase plasma GH. These results also suggest that actions of acyl-ghrelin to increase food intake and body weight are reliant on direct activation of GHSRs expressed on somatotrophs. Furthermore, these results suggest that the glucoregulatory actions of acyl-ghrelin – in particular, its actions to raise blood glucose when acutely administered, prevent small blood glucose drops following a 24-h fast, and avert life-threatening hypoglycemia during an acute-on-chronic caloric restriction protocol – do not depend on GHSR expression by somatotrophs. Mice with pituitary somatotroph-selective GHSR deletion were generated. Somatotroph-expressed GHSRs mediate GH secretion and food intake after acute ghrelin. Body weight effects of chronic ghrelin infusion require somatotroph-expressed GHSRs. Somatotroph-expressed GHSRs enable GH to increase upon chronic caloric restriction. Mice lacking somatotroph GHSRs maintain euglycemia upon chronic caloric restriction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepali Gupta
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Anna M Patterson
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Sherri Osborne-Lawrence
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Angie L Bookout
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Salil Varshney
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Kripa Shankar
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Omprakash Singh
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Nathan P Metzger
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Corine P Richard
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Steven C Wyler
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Joel K Elmquist
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA; Division of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA; Department of Psychiatry, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Jeffrey M Zigman
- Center for Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA; Division of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA; Department of Psychiatry, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA.
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