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Luethy D. Eastern, Western, and Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis and West Nile Viruses: Clinical and Public Health Considerations. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2023; 39:99-113. [PMID: 36737290 DOI: 10.1016/j.cveq.2022.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The continued recognition and emergence of alphavirus and flavivirus diseases is a growing veterinary and public health concern. As the global environment continues to change, mosquito-borne diseases will continue to evolve and expand. Continued development of readily available vaccines for the prevention of these diseases in humans and animals is essential to controlling epizootics of these diseases. Further research into effective antiviral treatments is also sorely needed. This article describes equine encephalitis viruses with a focus on clinical and public health considerations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Luethy
- Large Animal Internal Medicine, Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, PO Box 100136, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA.
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Japanese Encephalitis Virus: The Emergence of Genotype IV in Australia and Its Potential Endemicity. Viruses 2022; 14:v14112480. [PMID: 36366578 PMCID: PMC9698845 DOI: 10.3390/v14112480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2022] [Revised: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
A fatal case of Japanese encephalitis (JE) occurred in northern Australia in early 2021. Sequence studies showed that the virus belonged to genotype IV (GIV), a genotype previously believed to be restricted to the Indonesian archipelago. This was the first locally acquired case of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) GIV to occur outside Indonesia, and the second confirmed fatal human case caused by a GIV virus. A closely related GIV JEV strain subsequently caused a widespread outbreak in eastern Australia in 2022 that was first detected by fetal death and abnormalities in commercial piggeries. Forty-two human cases also occurred with seven fatalities. This has been the first major outbreak of JEV in mainland Australia, and geographically the largest virgin soil outbreak recorded for JEV. This outbreak provides an opportunity to discuss and document the factors involved in the virus' spread and its ecology in a novel ecological milieu in which other flaviviruses, including members of the JE serological complex, also occur. The probable vertebrate hosts and mosquito vectors are discussed with respect to virus spread and its possible endemicity in Australia, and the need to develop a One Health approach to develop improved surveillance methods to rapidly detect future outbreak activity across a large geographical area containing a sparse human population. Understanding the spread of JEV in a novel ecological environment is relevant to the possible threat that JEV may pose in the future to other receptive geographic areas, such as the west coast of the United States, southern Europe or Africa.
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Saiz JC, Martín-Acebes MA, Blázquez AB, Escribano-Romero E, Poderoso T, Jiménez de Oya N. Pathogenicity and virulence of West Nile virus revisited eight decades after its first isolation. Virulence 2021; 12:1145-1173. [PMID: 33843445 PMCID: PMC8043182 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2021.1908740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is a flavivirus which transmission cycle is maintained between mosquitoes and birds, although it occasionally causes sporadic outbreaks in horses and humans that can result in serious diseases and even death. Since its first isolation in Africa in 1937, WNV had been considered a neglected pathogen until its recent spread throughout Europe and the colonization of America, regions where it continues to cause outbreaks with severe neurological consequences in humans and horses. Although our knowledge about the characteristics and consequences of the virus has increased enormously lately, many questions remain to be resolved. Here, we thoroughly update our knowledge of different aspects of the WNV life cycle: virology and molecular classification, host cell interactions, transmission dynamics, host range, epidemiology and surveillance, immune response, clinical presentations, pathogenesis, diagnosis, prophylaxis (antivirals and vaccines), and prevention, and we highlight those aspects that are still unknown and that undoubtedly require further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan-Carlos Saiz
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute for Agricultural and Food Research and Technology (INIA), Madrid, Spain
| | - Miguel A Martín-Acebes
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute for Agricultural and Food Research and Technology (INIA), Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana B Blázquez
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute for Agricultural and Food Research and Technology (INIA), Madrid, Spain
| | - Estela Escribano-Romero
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute for Agricultural and Food Research and Technology (INIA), Madrid, Spain
| | - Teresa Poderoso
- Molecular Virology Group, Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Nereida Jiménez de Oya
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute for Agricultural and Food Research and Technology (INIA), Madrid, Spain
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Bosco-Lauth AM, Bowen RA. West Nile Virus: Veterinary Health and Vaccine Development. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2019; 56:1463-1466. [PMID: 31549715 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjz125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) (Flaviviridae: Flavivirus) was discovered in Africa more than 80 yr ago and became recognized as an avian pathogen and a cause of neurologic disease in horses largely during periodic incursions into Europe. Introduction of WNV into North America stimulated great anxiety, particularly in the equine industry, but also for pet owners and livestock producers concerned about the effect of WNV on other domestic animals. Numerous subsequent studies of naturally occurring and experimentally induced disease greatly expanded our understanding of the host range and clinical consequences of WNV infection in diverse species and led to rapid development and deployment of efficacious vaccines for horses. In addition to humans, horses are clearly the animals most frequently affected by serious, sometimes lethal disease following infection with WNV, but are dead-end hosts due to the low-magnitude viremia they develop. Dogs, cats, and livestock species including chickens are readily infected with WNV, but only occasionally develop clinical disease and are considered dead-end hosts for the virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela M Bosco-Lauth
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, ARBL, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO
| | - Richard A Bowen
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, ARBL, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO
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Valentine BA, Saulez MN, Cebra CK, Fischer KA. Compressive Myelopathy due to Intervertebral Disk Extrusion in a Llama (Lama Glama). J Vet Diagn Invest 2016; 18:126-9. [PMID: 16566272 DOI: 10.1177/104063870601800122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
A 12-year-old intact female llama was euthanized following acute onset of spastic tetraparesis and recumbency with inability to rise. Postmortem examination revealed caudal cervical spinal cord compression due to a mass within the ventral spinal canal arising from the C6–C7 intervertebral disk space and attached to an irregularly thickened annulus fibrosis. On histopathologic examination, the mass was composed of amorphous acellular basophilic to amphophilic material admixed with irregularly arranged collagen bundles. The amorphous material was metachromatic and contained multiple small foci of markedly vacuolated round cells, characteristic of origin from the nucleus pulposus. Severe necrosis of all white matter tracts with astrocytic reaction was present in the overlying spinal cord segment. Ascending and descending Wallerian degeneration and dissecting interstitial astrogliosis were present within white matter tracts above and below the lesion, respectively. The diagnosis was compressive myelopathy due to chronic extrusion of the nucleus pulposus of the C6–C7 inter-vertebral disk. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of intervertebral disk disease in a camelid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beth A Valentine
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis 97331, USA
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Yeh JY, Chung KM, Song J. Differentiation of West Nile virus-infected animals from vaccinated animals by competitive ELISA using monoclonal antibodies against non-structural protein 1. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2012; 12:380-7. [PMID: 22217168 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2011.0796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Antibodies against non-structural protein 1 (NS1) are considered to be the most reliable indicator of a present or past infection by West Nile virus (WNV) in animals. In this study, an in-house competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (NS1-cELISA) utilizing baculovirus-expressed NS1 and monoclonal antibodies against NS1 was established for the detection of antibody responses to NS1 in WNV-infected animals. The assay was validated by the simultaneous detection of early antibody responses to NS1 and the structural envelope protein in animals infected with WNV, or inoculated with inactivated WNV. NS1-cELISA detected WNV antibodies at 6 days post-infection (dpi) in a WNV-infected rabbit (percent inhibition [PI] value of 84.0), and at 10 dpi in a WNV-infected chicken (PI value of 67.0). The NS1-cELISA was able to detect WNV antibodies in sera from all WNV-infected rabbits at 10 dpi (PI value of 79.2±18.0), and from three of four WNV-infected chickens at 14 dpi (PI value of 73.7±22.8). The results of this study demonstrate that the antibody response to NS1 is similar to that against envelope protein in WNV-infected rabbits and chickens, whereas animals inoculated with inactivated WNV develop antibody responses only to the envelope protein but not to NS1. The NS1-cELISA developed here has the potential to be a useful tool for monitoring WNV circulation (i.e., the prevalence of specific antibodies against WNV NS1), by assaying serum samples from regions in which an inactivated vaccine control strategy has been implemented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung-Yong Yeh
- Foreign Animal Disease Division, National Veterinary Research and Quarantine Service, Anyang, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjay Kapil
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Oklahoma Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Farm and Ridge Road, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA.
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Abstract
The area of herd health is particularly important when considering camelid operations because of the high frequency of travel for exhibition, breeding, and boarding. This article outlines the considerations for routine husbandry, facility and animal maintenance, and infectious disease control in the form of biosecurity, vaccination, and health testing that should be included in any farm's herd-health plan. Veterinary input into the design of programs for biosecurity and infectious disease prevention is critical and requires an active veterinary client-patient relationship with identification of the goals of the operation. Risk assessments should be made based on farm activities and should be the foundation for herd-health program design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meredyth Jones
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Kansas State University, 1800 Denison Avenue, Manhattan, KS 66502, USA.
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Brault AC. Changing patterns of West Nile virus transmission: altered vector competence and host susceptibility. Vet Res 2009; 40:43. [PMID: 19406093 PMCID: PMC2695027 DOI: 10.1051/vetres/2009026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2009] [Accepted: 04/29/2009] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is a flavivirus (Flaviviridae) transmitted between Culex spp. mosquitoes and avian hosts. The virus has dramatically expanded its geographic range in the past ten years. Increases in global commerce, climate change, ecological factors and the emergence of novel viral genotypes likely play significant roles in the emergence of this virus; however, the exact mechanism and relative importance of each is uncertain. Previously WNV was primarily associated with febrile illness of children in endemic areas, but it was identified as a cause of neurological disease in humans in 1994. This modulation in disease presentation could be the result of the emergence of a more virulent genotype as well as the progression of the virus into areas in which the age structure of immunologically naïve individuals makes them more susceptible to severe neurological disease. Since its introduction to North America in 1999, a novel WNV genotype has been identified that has been demonstrated to disseminate more rapidly and with greater efficiency at elevated temperatures than the originally introduced strain, indicating the potential importance of temperature as a selective criteria for the emergence of WNV genotypes with increased vectorial capacity. Even prior to the North American introduction, a mutation associated with increased replication in avian hosts, identified to be under adaptive evolutionary pressure, has been identified, indicating that adaptation for increased replication within vertebrate hosts could play a role in increased transmission efficiency. Although stable in its evolutionary structure, WNV has demonstrated the capacity for rapidly adapting to both vertebrate hosts and invertebrate vectors and will likely continue to exploit novel ecological niches as it adapts to novel transmission foci.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron C Brault
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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Nolen-Walston R, Bedenice D, Rodriguez C, Rushton S, Bright A, Fecteau ME, Short D, Majdalany R, Tewari D, Pedersen D, Kiupel M, Maes R, Piero F. Eastern Equine Encephalitis in 9 South American Camelids. J Vet Intern Med 2007. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2007.tb03030.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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Julander JG, Winger QA, Rickords LF, Shi PY, Tilgner M, Binduga-Gajewska I, Sidwell RW, Morrey JD. West Nile virus infection of the placenta. Virology 2006; 347:175-82. [PMID: 16406457 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2005.11.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2005] [Revised: 10/17/2005] [Accepted: 11/19/2005] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Intrauterine infection of fetuses with West Nile virus (WNV) has been implicated in cases of women infected during pregnancy. Infection of timed-pregnant mice on 5.5, 7.5, and 9.5 days post-coitus (dpc) resulted in fetal infection. Infection of dams on 11.5 and 14.5 dpc resulted in little and no fetal infection, respectively. Pre-implantation embryos in culture were also infected with WNV after the blastocyst stage and the formation of trophectoderm. Green fluorescent protein (GFP) expression was observed in a trophoblast stem (TS) cell line after infection with a GFP-expressing WNV construct. However, no fluorescence was observed in differentiated trophoblast giant cell (TGC) cultures. GFP fluorescence was present in TGC cultures if infected TS cells were induced to differentiate. These results suggest that embryos are susceptible to WNV infection after the formation of the trophectoderm around 3.5 dpc through the formation of the functional placenta around 10.5 dpc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin G Julander
- The Institute for Antiviral Research, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, USA
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Ozkul A, Yildirim Y, Pinar D, Akcali A, Yilmaz V, Colak D. Serological evidence of West Nile Virus (WNV) in mammalian species in Turkey. Epidemiol Infect 2005; 134:826-9. [PMID: 16316496 PMCID: PMC2870448 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268805005492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/30/2005] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, the sera collected from a variety of mammalian species (ass-mules, cat, cattle, dog, horse, human and sheep) in 10 representative provinces of Turkey, were surveyed for the presence of neutralizing antibodies to West Nile virus (WNV). Overall, 1 of 40 (2.5%) ass-mules, 4 of 100 (4%) cattle, 43 of 114 (37.7%) dogs, 35 of 259 (13.5%) horses, 18 of 88 (20.4%) humans and 1 of 100 (1%) sheep, tested positive for WNV-neutralizing antibodies. The results indicate that a wide range of mammals are exposed to a West Nile-related virus and this could contribute to the long-term survival of this virus in the absence of overt disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Ozkul
- Ankara University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Virology, Diskapi, Ankara, Turkey.
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