Contextual interference effects with skilled baseball players

An Examination of the Contextual Interference Effect and the Errorless Learning Model during Motor Learning

The purpose of this study was to investigate the combined effects of random and block practice, with errorless and errorful conditions, on motor learning. One hundred-twenty participants (all male, Mage = 21.19 ± 1.4 years) were randomly assigned to one of eight groups. Participants completed a dart throwing task across the experimental phases. In the retention test, evidence supporting the CI effect was found in the 'errorless' conditions, but not in the 'errorful' conditions. In the transfer tests, the findings indicated that the impact of errorless and errorful conditions on participants' automation levels depends on the structure of practice. Participants in the Random-Errorless group performed better in the transfer tests than those in the Random group and the Random-Errorful group, suggesting greater automation levels following errorless practice.

Imagine, Sing, Play- Combined Mental, Vocal and Physical Practice Improves Musical Performance

Classical musicians face a high demand for flawless and expressive performance, leading to highly intensified practice activity. Whereas the advantage of using mental strategies is well documented in sports research, few studies have explored the efficacy of mental imagery and overt singing on musical instrumental learning. In this study, 50 classically trained trumpet students performed short unfamiliar pieces. Performances were recorded before and after applying four prescribed practice strategies which were (1) physical practice, (2) mental imagery, (3) overt singing with optional use of solfege, (4) a combination of 1, 2 and 3 or a control condition, no practice. Three experts independently assessed pitch and rhythm accuracy, sound quality, intonation, and musical expression in all recordings. We found higher gains in the overall performance, as well as in pitch accuracy for the physical practice, and the combined practice strategies, compared to no practice. Furthermore, only the combined strategy yielded a significant improvement in musical expression. Pitch performance improvement was positively correlated with previous solfege training and frequent use of random practice strategies. The findings highlight benefits from applying practice strategies that complement physical practice in music instrument practice in short term early stages of learning a new piece. The study may generalize to other forms of learning, involving cognitive processes and motor skills.

Repetition without Repetition or Differential Learning of Multiple Techniques in Volleyball?

A variety of approaches have been proposed for teaching several volleyball techniques to beginners, ranging from general ball familiarization to model-oriented repetition to highly variable learning. This study compared the effects of acquiring three volleyball techniques in parallel with three approaches. Female secondary school students (N = 42; 15.6 ± 0.54 years) participated in a pretest for three different volleyball techniques (underhand pass, overhand pass, and overhead serve) with an emphasis on accuracy. Based on their results, they were parallelized into three practice protocols, a repetitive learning group (RG), a differential learning group (DG), and a control group (CG). After a period of six weeks with 12 intervention sessions, all participants attended a posttest. An additional retention test after two weeks revealed a statistically significant difference between DG, RG, and CG for all single techniques as well as the combined multiple technique. In each technique-the overhand pass, the underhand pass, the overhand service, and the combination of the three techniques-DG performed best (each p < 0.001).

Desirable and undesirable difficulties: Influences of variability, training schedule, and aptitude on nonnative phonetic learning

Adult listeners often struggle to learn to distinguish speech sounds not present in their native language. High-variability training sets (i.e., stimuli produced by multiple talkers or stimuli that occur in diverse phonological contexts) often result in better retention of the learned information, as well as increased generalization to new instances. However, high-variability training is also more challenging, and not every listener can take advantage of this kind of training. An open question is how variability should be introduced to the learner in order to capitalize on the benefits of such training without derailing the training process. The current study manipulated phonological variability as native English speakers learned a difficult nonnative (Hindi) contrast by presenting the nonnative contrast in the context of two different vowels (/i/ and /u/). In a between-subjects design, variability was manipulated during training and during test. Participants were trained in the evening hours and returned the next morning for reassessment to test for retention of the speech sounds. We found that blocked training was superior to interleaved training for both learning and retention, but for learners in the interleaved training group, higher pretraining aptitude predicted better identification performance. Further, pretraining discrimination aptitude positively predicted changes in phonetic discrimination after a period of off-line consolidation, regardless of the training manipulation. These findings add to a growing literature suggesting that variability may come at a cost in phonetic learning and that aptitude can affect both learning and retention of nonnative speech sounds.

Interleaving Benefits the Learning of Complex Perceptual Categories: Evidence Against the Discriminative-Contrast Hypothesis

Interleaving examples of to-be-learned categories, rather than blocking examples by category, frequently enhances category induction. The presently dominant theory is that interleaving promotes discriminative-contrast, and suggests that category similarity structure modulates this interleaving benefit: that blocking should benefit learning when within-category similarity is low and that interleaving should benefit learning when between-category similarity is low. We test whether predictions of this hypothesis hold when generalized to real, complex categories artists' painting styles. Specifically, we test two predictions: (a) that within- and between-category structure should modulate the interleaving benefit (Exp 1a and 1b) and (b) that deliberately juxtaposing similar examples by different artists to highlight their key differences should improve learning (Exp 2a and 2b). We did not, however, find evidence that the discriminative-contrast hypothesis explains the interleaving benefit for complex, perceptual categories.

Rowing Simulator Modulates Water Density to Foster Motor Learning

Although robot-assisted training is present in various fields such as sports engineering and rehabilitation, provision of training strategies that optimally support individual motor learning remains as a challenge. Literature has shown that guidance strategies are useful for beginners, while skilled trainees should benefit from challenging conditions. The Challenge Point Theory also supports this in a way that learning is dependent on the available information, which serves as a challenge to the learner. So, learning can be fostered when the optimal amount of information is given according to the trainee's skill. Even though the framework explains the importance of difficulty modulation, there are no practical guidelines for complex dynamic tasks on how to match the difficulty to the trainee's skill progress. Therefore, the goal of this study was to determine the impact on learning of a complex motor task by a modulated task difficulty scheme during the training sessions, without distorting the nature of task. In this 3-day protocol study, we compared two groups of naïve participants for learning a sweep rowing task in a highly sophisticated rowing simulator. During trainings, groups received concurrent visual feedback displaying the requested oar movement. Control group performed the task under constant difficulty in the training sessions. Experimental group's task difficulty was modulated by changing the virtual water density that generated different heaviness of the simulated water-oar interaction, which yielded practice variability. Learning was assessed in terms of spatial and velocity magnitude errors and the variability for these metrics. Results of final day tests revealed that both groups reduced their error and variability for the chosen metrics. Notably, in addition to the provision of a very well established visual feedback and knowledge of results, experimental group's variable training protocol with modulated difficulty showed a potential to be advantageous for the spatial consistency and velocity accuracy. The outcomes of training and test runs indicate that we could successfully alter the performance of the trainees by changing the density value of the virtual water. Therefore, a follow-up study is necessary to investigate how to match different density values to the skill and performance improvement of the participants.

Learner-adapted practice promotes skill transfer in unskilled adults learning the basketball set shot

The current study used a complex, sport-specific movement skill to explore the effects of a win-shift/lose-stay practice schedule on learning and compared its effectiveness with that of blocked and random practice schedules. Thirty-six adults (24.9 ± 3.3 years) were assigned to blocked, random and learner-adapted training groups. Each participant performed 360 trials of the basketball set shot from multiple locations across six practice sessions. For the learner-adapted group, switching between task variations was performance-contingent; switching between shooting locations occurred only following a successful shot. Shooting success was calculated as the percentage of successful shots performed, and measured during pre-acquisition (i.e. baseline), acquisition (i.e. practice) and post-acquisition (i.e. retention and transfer). Despite scoring less shots throughout practice compared to baseline testing, the learner-adapted group showed a significant improvement for shooting success in transfer (d = 1.02). Blocked practice demonstrated significant improvements for shooting success in immediate retention (d = 1.83), delayed retention (d = 1.69) and transfer (d = 1.39). Random practice significantly improved shooting success in both immediate (d = 1.03) and delayed retention (d = 0.81). The current findings highlight that performance during practice does not necessarily represent the permanency and adaptability of skill learning. The implications of the findings and their practical applications are discussed in the context of practice scheduling during learning of a sports skill.

Verbal and spatial acquisition as a function of distributed practice and code-specific interference

Theories of memory must account for memory performance during both the acquisition (i.e., ongoing learning) and retention (i.e., following disuse) stages of training. One factor affecting both stages is whether repeated encounters with a set of material occur with no delay between blocks (massed) or alternating with another intervening task (spaced). Whereas the retention advantage for spaced over massed practice is well accounted for by some current theories of memory, theories of decay or general interference predict massed, rather than spaced, advantages during acquisition. In a series of 3 experiments, we show that the effects of spacing on acquisition depend on the relationship between primary and delay tasks. Specifically, massed acquisition advantages occur only in the presence of code-specific interference (the engagement in two alternating tasks both emphasizing the same processing code, such as verbal or spatial processing codes; e.g., learning letter-number pairs and reading text), whereas spaced acquisition advantages are observed only when code-specific interference is absent. These results present a challenge for major theories of memory. Furthermore, we argue that code-specific interference is important for researchers of the spacing and interleaving effects to take into consideration, as the relationship between the alternating tasks used has a substantial impact on acquisition performance.

Dissociable effects of practice variability on learning motor and timing skills

Motor skill acquisition inherently depends on the way one practices the motor task. The amount of motor task variability during practice has been shown to foster transfer of the learned skill to other similar motor tasks. In addition, variability in a learning schedule, in which a task and its variations are interweaved during practice, has been shown to help the transfer of learning in motor skill acquisition. However, there is little evidence on how motor task variations and variability schedules during practice act on the acquisition of complex motor skills such as music performance, in which a performer learns both the right movements (motor skill) and the right time to perform them (timing skill). This study investigated the impact of rate (tempo) variability and the schedule of tempo change during practice on timing and motor skill acquisition. Complete novices, with no musical training, practiced a simple musical sequence on a piano keyboard at different rates. Each novice was assigned to one of four learning conditions designed to manipulate the amount of tempo variability across trials (large or small tempo set) and the schedule of tempo change (randomized or non-randomized order) during practice. At test, the novices performed the same musical sequence at a familiar tempo and at novel tempi (testing tempo transfer), as well as two novel (but related) sequences at a familiar tempo (testing spatial transfer). We found that practice conditions had little effect on learning and transfer performance of timing skill. Interestingly, practice conditions influenced motor skill learning (reduction of movement variability): lower temporal variability during practice facilitated transfer to new tempi and new sequences; non-randomized learning schedule improved transfer to new tempi and new sequences. Tempo (rate) and the sequence difficulty (spatial manipulation) affected performance variability in both timing and movement. These findings suggest that there is a dissociable effect of practice variability on learning complex skills that involve both motor and timing constraints.

Quantifying Contextual Interference and Its Effect on Skill Transfer in Skilled Youth Tennis Players

The contextual interference effect is a well-established motor learning phenomenon. Most of the contextual interference effect literature has addressed simple skills, while less is known about the role of contextual interference in complex sport skill practice, particularly with respect to skilled performers. The purpose of this study was to assess contextual interference when practicing the tennis serve. Study 1 evaluated tennis serve practice of nine skilled youth tennis players using a novel statistical metric developed specifically to measure between-skill and within-skill variability as sources of contextual interference. This metric highlighted that skilled tennis players typically engaged in serve practice that featured low contextual interference. In Study 2, 16 skilled youth tennis players participated in 10 practice sessions that aimed to improve serving "down the T." Participants were stratified into a low contextual interference practice group (Low CI) and a moderate contextual interference practice group (Moderate CI). Pre- and post-tests were conducted 1 week before and 1 week after the practice period. Testing involved a skill test, which assessed serving performance in a closed setting, and a transfer test, which assessed serving performance in a match-play setting. No significant contextual interference differences were observed with respect to practice performance. However, analysis of pre- and post-test serve performance revealed significant Group × Time interactions. The Moderate CI group showed no change in serving performance (service displacement from the T) from pre- to post-test in the skill test, but did display improvements in the transfer test. Conversely, the Low CI group improved serving performance (service displacement from the T) in the skill test but not the transfer test. Results suggest that the typical contextual interference effect is less clear when practicing a complex motor skill, at least with the tennis serve skill evaluated here. We encourage researchers and applied sport scientists to use our statistical metric to measure contextual interference.

No Overt Effects of a 6-Week Exergame Training on Sensorimotor and Cognitive Function in Older Adults. A Preliminary Investigation

Several studies investigating the relationship between physical activity and cognition showed that exercise interventions might have beneficial effects on working memory, executive functions as well as motor fitness in old adults. Recently, movement based video games (exergames) have been introduced to have the capability to improve cognitive function in older adults. Healthy aging is associated with a loss of cognitive, as well as sensorimotor functions. During exergaming, participants are required to perform physical activities while being simultaneously surrounded by a cognitively challenging environment. However, only little is known about the impact of exergame training interventions on a broad range of motor, sensory, and cognitive skills. Therefore, the present study aims at investigating the effects of an exergame training over 6 weeks on cognitive, motor, and sensory functions in healthy old participants. For this purpose, 30 neurologically healthy older adults were randomly assigned to either an experimental (ETG, n = 15, 1 h training, twice a week) or a control group (NTG, n = 15, no training). Several cognitive tests were performed before and after exergaming in order to capture potential training-induced effects on processing speed as well as on executive functions. To measure the impact of exergaming on sensorimotor performance, a test battery consisting of pinch and grip force of the hand, tactile acuity, eye-hand coordination, flexibility, reaction time, coordination, and static balance were additionally performed. While we observed significant improvements in the trained exergame (mainly in tasks that required a high load of coordinative abilities), these gains did not result in differential performance improvements when comparing ETG and NTG. The only exergaming-induced difference was a superior behavioral gain in fine motor skills of the left hand in ETG compared to NTG. In an exploratory analysis, within-group comparison revealed improvements in sensorimotor and cognitive tasks (ETG) while NTG only showed an improvement in a static balance test. Taken together, the present study indicates that even though exergames might improve gaming performance, our behavioral assessment was probably not sensitive enough to capture exergaming-induced improvements. Hence, we suggest to use more tailored outcome measures in future studies to assess potential exergaming-induced changes.

Contextual Interference Effect on Acquisition and Retention of Pistol-Shooting Skills

The effects of contextual interference on learning pistol-shooting skills in a natural training environment were examined. The shooting skills consisted of three “stages” with different requirements for the skill variations commonly used in the field. 12 participants were randomly assigned into one of two practice conditions, blocked vs serial. Following a 20-min. safety and skill instructional session, Blocked group practiced 10 trials in a row at each stage, while Serial group performed 5 trials in a row for each of the three stages and then repeated the cycle. Both groups completed a total of 30 practice trials over the three stages. A 10-min. rest interval was provided prior to a retention test which included 9 trials (3 trials at each stage in a blocked format). Results based on the data of Stage III, the most complex skill among the three stages, showed a pattern consistent with previous findings that practicing in the serial schedule depressed performance during initial training but maintained the performance better at retention, relative to the blocked practice.

Effects of Contextual Interference on Acquisition and Retention of Three Volleyball Skills

Manipulating the organization of practice conditions, through contextual interference, was identified as a method to promote motor skill acquisition by Brady in 1998. The generalizability of this learning effect is questionable and the amount of repetition versus the amount of change in task presentation requires investigation. The purpose of this study was to explore explanations for the performance of learners practicing the AAHPERD volleyball skills test when the change in task presentation varied. High school students were randomly assigned to blocked, random, and random-blocked practice groups. While all groups significantly improved all skills during acquisition, there was no support for the contextual interference effect. Potential explanations might be dependent upon the learners' skill and the complexity of the task to be learned. Further research is warranted examining contextual interference effect on practice organization at levels of difficulty appropriate to facilitate cognitive processing of task-related information.

Come to think of it: Contributions of reasoning abilities and training schedule to skill acquisition in a virtual throwing task

According to Schmidt's schema theory skill acquisition is based on schema formation where multiple learning incidents with varying task features are abstracted to a unifying pattern, the schema. Practice can be scheduled block-wise, with low contextual interference (CI) or randomly, with high CI. The greater effort during high CI training usually results in reduced training success but enhanced retention and transfer performance. In contrast to well-established CI effects for simple tasks, findings for complex tasks are heterogeneous, supposedly due to the detrimental accumulation of task demands. We assumed that in complex tasks, cognitive reasoning abilities might impose a limit upon schema formation and hence the effectiveness of CI. In a virtual overarm-throwing experiment participants practiced target positions at center, left, or right and were retested for retention - at the center position - and transfer with a larger target distance. Although there was no main effect of CI on performance, either in training, retention or transfer, under high CI, training performance was better for participants with higher reasoning ability, as measured with the Raven matrices. This advantage persisted across retention and transfer. Under low CI, reasoning was positively related to performance improvement only in the last third of training. We argue, that variability of practice is a necessary prerequisite for beneficial effects of reasoning abilities. Based on previous findings, we discuss feedback evaluation as a possible locus of the relationship between reasoning and performance in motor skill acquisition.

Optimizing Music Learning: Exploring How Blocked and Interleaved Practice Schedules Affect Advanced Performance

Repetition is the most commonly used practice strategy by musicians. Although blocks of repetition continue to be suggested in the pedagogical literature, work in the field of cognitive psychology suggests that repeated events receive less processing, thereby reducing the potential for long-term learning. Motor skill learning and sport psychology research offer an alternative. Instead of using a blocked practice schedule, with practice completed on one task before moving on to the next task, an interleaved schedule can be used, in which practice is frequently alternated between tasks. This frequent alternation involves more effortful processing, resulting in increased long-term learning. The finding that practicing in an interleaved schedule leads to better retention than practicing in a blocked schedule has been labeled the “contextual interference effect.” While the effect has been observed across a wide variety of fields, few studies have researched this phenomenon in a music-learning context, despite the broad potential for application to music practice. This study compared the effects of blocked and interleaved practice schedules on advanced clarinet performance in an ecologically valid context. Ten clarinetists were given one concerto exposition and one technical excerpt to practice in a blocked schedule (12 min per piece) and a second concerto exposition and technical excerpt to practice in an interleaved schedule (3 min per piece, alternating until a total of 12 min of practice were completed on each piece). Participants sight-read the four pieces prior to practice and performed them at the end of practice and again one day later. The sight-reading and two performance run-throughs of each piece were recorded and given to three professional clarinetists to rate using a percentage scale. Overall, whenever there was a ratings difference between the conditions, pieces practiced in the interleaved schedule were rated better than those in the blocked schedule, although results varied across raters. Participant questionnaires also revealed that the interleaved practice schedule had positive effects on factors such as goal setting, focus, and mistake identification. Taken together, these results suggest that an interleaved practice schedule may be a more effective practice strategy than continuous repetition in a music-learning context.

Varied Practice in Laparoscopy Training: Beneficial Learning Stimulation or Cognitive Overload?

Determining the optimal design for surgical skills training is an ongoing research endeavor. In education literature, varied practice is listed as a positive intervention to improve acquisition of knowledge and motor skills. In the current study we tested the effectiveness of a varied practice intervention during laparoscopy training. Twenty-four trainees (control group) without prior experience received a 3 weeks laparoscopic skills training utilizing four basic and one advanced training task. Twenty-eight trainees (experimental group) received the same training with a random training task schedule, more frequent task switching and inverted viewing conditions on the four basic training tasks, but not the advanced task. Results showed inferior performance of the experimental group on the four basic laparoscopy tasks during training, at the end of training and at a 2 months retention session. We assume the inverted viewing conditions have led to the deterioration of learning in the experimental group because no significant differences were found between groups on the only task that had not been practiced under inverted viewing conditions; the advanced laparoscopic task. Potential moderating effects of inter-task similarity, task complexity, and trainee characteristics are discussed.

An In Vivo Study of Self-Regulated Study Sequencing in Introductory Psychology Courses

Study sequence can have a profound influence on learning. In this study we investigated how students decide to sequence their study in a naturalistic context and whether their choices result in improved learning. In the study reported here, 2061 undergraduate students enrolled in an Introductory Psychology course completed an online homework tutorial on measures of central tendency, a topic relevant to an exam that counted towards their grades. One group of students was enabled to choose their own study sequence during the tutorial (Self-Regulated group), while the other group of students studied the same materials in sequences chosen by other students (Yoked group). Students who chose their sequence of study showed a clear tendency to block their study by concept, and this tendency was positively associated with subsequent exam performance. In the Yoked group, study sequence had no effect on exam performance. These results suggest that despite findings that blocked study is maladaptive when assigned by an experimenter, it may actually be adaptive when chosen by the learner in a naturalistic context.

Transfer in Motor Sequence Learning: Effects of Practice Schedule and Sequence Context

Transfer (i.e., the application of a learned skill in a novel context) is an important and desirable outcome of motor skill learning. While much research has been devoted to understanding transfer of explicit skills the mechanisms of skill transfer after incidental learning remain poorly understood. The aim of this study was to (1) examine the effect of practice schedule on transfer and (2) investigate whether sequence-specific knowledge can transfer to an unfamiliar sequence context. We trained two groups of participants on an implicit serial response time task under a Constant (one sequence for 10 blocks) or Variable (alternating between two sequences for a total of 10 blocks) practice schedule. We evaluated response times for three types of transfer: task-general transfer to a structurally non-overlapping sequence, inter-manual transfer to a perceptually identical sequence, and sequence-specific transfer to a partially overlapping (three shared triplets) sequence. Results showed partial skill transfer to all three sequences and an advantage of Variable practice only for task-general transfer. Further, we found expression of sequence-specific knowledge for familiar sub-sequences in the overlapping sequence. These findings suggest that (1) constant practice may create interference for task-general transfer and (2) sequence-specific knowledge can transfer to a new sequential context.

Medical Student Performance After a Vertically Integrated Radiology Clerkship

PURPOSE

Proper selection of imaging examinations and basic image interpretation skills are essential for all physicians, yet only approximately 25% of US medical schools require clerkships in radiology. Although there is limited time in most medical school curricula to allow the addition of a required radiology clerkship, the authors developed one that is vertically integrated over a two-year period. This clerkship includes one week of contact with radiologists distributed over the M2 and M3 years, podcasts, online modules, required readings, and presentations. A standard national examination is administered at the end of the clerkship period. This clerkship was designed to address the educational needs of students while occupying minimal time in the curriculum. The purpose of this study was to determine if students completing this clerkship perform as well on a national radiology examination as students from other medical schools, regardless of their curricula.

METHODS

At the end of the M3 year, these students take a computer-based radiology examination developed by the Alliance of Medical Student Educators in Radiology and used by students at multiple medical schools nationally. The mean and median scores of these students were compared with those of students at these other institutions.

RESULTS

The mean and median scores of the students were 74% and 74% (standard deviation, 7.5%) compared with 74% and 50% (standard deviation, 8.4%) at other institutions.

CONCLUSIONS

Students completing this vertically integrated radiology clerkship had test scores comparable with those of students at other medical schools.

Manipulation of cognitive load variables and impact on auscultation test performance

Health profession educators have identified auscultation skill as a learning need for health professional students. This article explores the application of cognitive load theory (CLT) to designing cardiac and respiratory auscultation skill instruction for senior-level undergraduate nursing students. Three experiments assessed student auscultation performance following instructional manipulations of the three primary components of cognitive load: intrinsic, extraneous, and germane load. Study 1 evaluated the impact of intrinsic cognitive load by varying the number of diagnoses learned in one instruction session; Study 2 evaluated the impact of extraneous cognitive load by providing students with single or multiple examples of diagnoses during instruction; and Study 3 evaluated the impact of germane cognitive load by employing mixed or blocked sequences of diagnostic examples to students. Each of the three studies presents results that support CLT as explaining the influence of different types of cognitive processing on auscultation skill acquisition. We conclude with a discussion regarding CLT's usefulness as a framework for education and education research in the health professions.

Contextual interference effects on the acquisition of skill and strength of the bench press

The purpose of this study was to investigate contextual interference effects on skill acquisition and strength gains during the learning of the bench press movement. Twenty-four healthy, college-aged males and females were stratified to control, high contextual interference (HCI), and low contextual interference (LCI) groups. Treatment groups were provided with written and visual instruction on proper bench press form and practiced the bench press and dart throwing for four weeks. Within each session, LCI performed all bench press sets before undertaking dart-throws. HCI undertook dart-throws immediately following each set of bench press. Control only did testing. Measurements, including one repetition maximum (1RM), checklist scores based on video recordings of participants' 1RM's, and dart-throw test scores were taken at pre-test, 1 week, 2 week, post-test, and retention test. Results were consistent with the basic premise of the contextual interference effect. LCI had significant improvements in percent 1RM and checklist scores during training, but were mostly absent after training (post-test and retention test). HCI had significant improvements in percent 1RM and checklist scores both during and after training. Thus, HCI may augment strength and movement skill on the bench press since proper technique is an important component of resistance exercise movements.

Dose and sequence of simulation and direct care experiences among beginning nursing students: a pilot study

Accumulating suggests human patient simulation is an effective instructional technique. Simulated clinical experiences may be a reasonable substitute for direct care experiences. Educators and regulators need to know what mix of simulation and direct care promotes learning and how these experiences can be designed to help nursing students achieve essential outcomes. The goal of this pilot study was to identify a model to promote development of clinical judgment among beginning nursing students. Principles related to types of learning and practice (blocked by type or interleaved) were used in exploring simulation and direct care design schema. Using a 50% interleaved simulation design schema, robust clinical judgment scores and positive perceptions of learning were identified among beginning students participating in a basic nursing concepts and skills course. Further study is warranted to determine whether this schema is effective in other nursing courses or with novice-level students from diverse health care disciplines.

White matter microstructural correlates of superior long-term skill gained implicitly under randomized practice

We value skills we have learned intentionally, but equally important are skills acquired incidentally without ability to describe how or what is learned, referred to as implicit. Randomized practice schedules are superior to grouped schedules for long-term skill gained intentionally, but its relevance for implicit learning is not known. In a parallel design, we studied healthy subjects who learned a motor sequence implicitly under randomized or grouped practice schedule and obtained diffusion-weighted images to identify white matter microstructural correlates of long-term skill. Randomized practice led to superior long-term skill compared with grouped practice. Whole-brain analyses relating interindividual variability in fractional anisotropy (FA) to long-term skill demonstrated that 1) skill in randomized learners correlated with FA within the corticostriatal tract connecting left sensorimotor cortex to posterior putamen, while 2) skill in grouped learners correlated with FA within the right forceps minor connecting homologous regions of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the corticostriatal tract connecting lateral PFC to anterior putamen. These results demonstrate first that randomized practice schedules improve long-term implicit skill more than grouped practice schedules and, second, that the superior skill acquired through randomized practice can be related to white matter microstructure in the sensorimotor corticostriatal network.

Learning from the experts: gaining insights into best practice during the acquisition of three novel motor skills

The amount and quality of practice predicts expertise, yet optimal conditions of practice have primarily been explored with novice learners. Ten expert musicians and ten novices practiced disc-throwing skills under self-regulated conditions. A third novice group practiced with the same schedule as the music experts (yoked). The groups did not differ in terms of the amount of contextual interference, only in terms of when in-practice interference was introduced. The music experts progressed from a more blocked to random schedule which was opposite to the novices. This resulted in more accurate performance in retention for the experts in comparison to both novice groups (self-scheduled and yoked). The music expert and yoked groups showed higher form scores than the novice self-scheduled group, which might be related to the greater frequency of augmented information for these groups. There was no evidence that non-task-domain experts choose a more random practice schedule than novices, but in accord with good practice principles, they gradually introduced high amounts of interference into their practice. This strategy was associated with less error in retention for the experts. Because the yoked group showed more error than the music experts, the advantage of this schedule was also performance dependent.

Chunking and compound cueing of movement sequences: learning, retention, and transfer

When teaching a complex sequence, the sequence is often chunked into components; however, this strategy may not always benefit learning, but may be detrimental. The hypothesis is that this occurs because chunking deprives learners of compound cues that could aid recall. To test this, participants learned 9-item movement sequences, either as three 3-item chunks or as one 9-item series. To undermine compound cueing, some sequences had several movements in common. Learning a sequence in chunks impaired motor skill acquisition only when participants could have exploited compound cues; it also led participants to adopt an alternative recall strategy, which transferred to novel sequences even though this was detrimental to recall.

Hand rim wheelchair propulsion training using biomechanical real-time visual feedback based on motor learning theory principles

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE

As considerable progress has been made in laboratory-based assessment of manual wheelchair propulsion biomechanics, the necessity to translate this knowledge into new clinical tools and treatment programs becomes imperative. The objective of this study was to describe the development of a manual wheelchair propulsion training program aimed to promote the development of an efficient propulsion technique among long-term manual wheelchair users.

METHODS

Motor learning theory principles were applied to the design of biomechanical feedback-based learning software, which allows for random discontinuous real-time visual presentation of key spatiotemporal and kinetic parameters. This software was used to train a long-term wheelchair user on a dynamometer during 3 low-intensity wheelchair propulsion training sessions over a 3-week period. Biomechanical measures were recorded with a SmartWheel during over ground propulsion on a 50-m level tile surface at baseline and 3 months after baseline.

RESULTS

Training software was refined and administered to a participant who was able to improve his propulsion technique by increasing contact angle while simultaneously reducing stroke cadence, mean resultant force, peak and mean moment out of plane, and peak rate of rise of force applied to the pushrim after training.

CONCLUSIONS

The proposed propulsion training protocol may lead to favorable changes in manual wheelchair propulsion technique. These changes could limit or prevent upper limb injuries among manual wheelchair users. In addition, many of the motor learning theory-based techniques examined in this study could be applied to training individuals in various stages of rehabilitation to optimize propulsion early on.

Critical features of training that facilitate adaptive generalization of over ground locomotion

When subjects learn motor tasks under novel visuomotor conditions variations in sensory input during training facilitate adaptive generalization. We tested the hypotheses that training with multiple sensory input variations is more effective than a single or no variation and that training must include critical features of the criterion task. Normal adults were pre- and post-tested on an obstacle avoidance task while wearing visual distortion lenses after treadmill walking (Experiment 1), or balance training (Experiment 2). Subjects were randomized to training groups in which they wore either: (1) three different visual distortion lenses, (2) a single pair of visual distortion lenses, or (3) sham lenses. Post-tests were done while wearing novel lenses. In Experiment 1 subjects who trained with multiple lenses adapted better than single or sham lens groups. The single lens-training group with magnifying lenses adapted better than the other single lens groups. In Experiment 2, training for dynamic balance, alone, did not increase training efficacy. Thus, training for an obstacle avoidance task in a novel visual environment required a critical feature of the criterion task: locomotion. Constant practice with a single lens was successful only if the best lens was selected, but the best lens could not be known ahead of time. Therefore variable practice with multiple lenses on a task that included a critical feature of the criterion task was the best training strategy to enhance adaptive generalization.

Win-Shift, Lose-Stay: Contingent Switching and Contextual Interference in Motor Learning

Learners ( n = 48) practiced three multisegment movements with distinct target movement times. Four practice groups were compared: blocked, random, and two groups who had a win-shift/lose-stay schedule (WSLS1 and WSLS2). For these latter groups switching between practice tasks was performance-contingent: within 5% of target time for 1 or 2 consecutive trials, respectively. During acquisition, blocked performance was more accurate than for both random and WSLS2 groups. The WSLS1 group performed between blocked and random groups, but did not differ from either. In a next-day retention test, the random group scored better than the blocked group. The WSLS1 group performed similarly to the random practice while the WSLS2 group's scores were similar to those of the blocked group. Results encourage further study of similar practice schedules.

Skill acquisition in tennis: Research and current practice

Common to most tennis players is the desire to improve performance. Equipped with the necessary motivation, these players can spend countless hours rehearsing tennis' skills under the guidance of a coach. Often, these practices feature repetitious hitting, with little consideration given to the actual context in which the game's skills are expressed. Alternatively, training sessions that amount to little more than poorly structured game-play, devoid of any specific goals or objectives, are also discernible. Either way, player learning and long-term performance are unlikely to be optimised. So, where tennis coaches have long relied on certain instructional approaches and types of practices to enhance player performance, their efficacy is uncertain. Indeed, a growing body of research suggests that players stand to benefit from the earlier introduction of variable and random practices and feedback that is more intrinsic in nature rather than time-honoured overly prescriptive coaching. This review considers contemporary skill acquisition research in relation to current tennis coaching practice.

Obstacle avoidance in novel visual environments improved by variable practice training

Motor performance on simple tasks improves after training in variable practice. We asked if locomotor skill during an obstacle-avoidance task in a novel sensorimotor environment improved through training in variable practice on other complex tasks. 40 normal adults practiced gross motor skills while wearing either sham lenses, one of several visual distortion lens (constant practice), or three different visual distortion lenses (variable practice). Posttests on obstacle avoidance with novel lenses showed significantly better scores with variable practice and one of the constant groups vs sham lenses. Constant and variable practice groups did not differ. Thus, performance in a novel environment improves after training on similar type novelty, even when practice and test conditions differ. Constant practice was effective only if the subjects used the lens efficacious in training. Variable practice increases the likelihood of efficacious training when adaptive performance is required in a novel environment.

Practice, instruction and skill acquisition in soccer: challenging tradition

The acquisition of soccer skills is fundamental to our enjoyment of the game and is essential to the attainment of expertise. Players spend most of their time in practice with the intention of improving technical skills. However, there is a lack of scientific research relating to the effective acquisition of soccer skills, especially when compared with the extensive research base on physiological aspects of performance. Current coaching practice is therefore based on tradition, intuition and emulation rather than empirical evidence. The aim of this review is to question some of the popular beliefs that guide current practice and instruction in soccer. Empirical evidence is presented to dispel many of these beliefs as myths, thereby challenging coaches to self-reflect and critically evaluate contemporary doctrine. The review should inform sports scientists and practitioners as to the important role that those interested in skill acquisition can play in enhancing performance at all levels of the game.

The influence of practice schedules in the learning of a complex bone-plating surgical task

BACKGROUND

Practicing surgical tasks on bench models can be arranged in 3 ways: as the entire task, or as individual skills practiced separately in blocked or random order. The issue of the optimal practice schedule for the acquisition of surgical tasks is critical for enhancing training programs.

METHOD

An orthopedic bone-plating task was practiced as a whole, or in parts in either a random or a blocked order. Learning was assessed on global ratings, checklists, and final product analysis before, immediately after, and an hour after practice.

RESULTS

Checklists, and final product analysis, but not the global ratings showed that practicing the entire task resulted in the most learning, followed by the random practice. Practice of the skills in a blocked order yielded the least amount of learning.

CONCLUSIONS

It is recommended that surgical tasks composed of several discrete skills should be practiced as a whole. However, if part practice is necessary, these skills should be arranged in random order to optimize learning.

Programming and reprogramming sequence timing following high and low contextual interference practice

Individuals practiced two unique discrete sequence production tasks that differed in their relative time profile in either a blocked or random practice schedule. Each participant was subsequently administered a "precuing" protocol to examine the cost of initially compiling or modifying the plan for an upcoming movement's relative timing. The findings indicated that, in general, random practice facilitated the programming of the required movement timing, and this was accomplished while exhibiting greater accuracy in movement production. Participants exposed to random practice exhibited the greatest motor programming benefit, when a modification to an already prepared movement timing profile was required. When movement timing was only partially constructed prior to the imperative signal, the individuals who were trained in blocked and random practice formats accrued a similar cost to complete the programming process. These data provide additional support for the recent claim of Immink & Wright (2001) that at least some of the benefit from experience in a random as opposed to blocked training context can be localized to superior development and implementation of the motor programming process before executing the movement.

The influence of professional expertise and task complexity upon the potency of the contextual interference effect

The contextual interference (CI) effect has been investigated through practice schedule manipulations within both basic and applied studies. Despite extensive research activity there is little conclusive evidence regarding the optimal practice structure of real world manipulative tasks in professional training settings. The present study therefore assessed the efficacy of practising simple and complex knot-tying skills in professional fire-fighters training. Forty-eight participants were quasi-randomly assigned to various practice schedules along the CI continuum. Twenty-four participants were students selected for their novice knot-tying capabilities and 24 were experienced fire-fighters who were more 'experienced knot-tiers'. They were assessed for skill acquisition, retention and transfer effects having practiced tying knots classified as simple or complex. Surprisingly, high levels of CI scheduling enhance learning for novices even when practising a complex task. The findings also revealed that CI benefits are most apparent as learners engage in tasks high in transfer distality. In conclusion, complexity and experience are mediating factors influencing the potency of the CI training effect in real-world settings.

Alternating versus blocked practice in learning a cartwheel

This investigation examined the generalizability of contextual interference to learning the cartwheel in gymnastics. 32 participants ages 17 to 26 years completed five stages of practice of two versions of the skill, one in which the left hand led and one in which the right hand led, providing a total of 192 practice trials. Practice of these two versions of the task was completed in either a blocked or alternating order. Tests of retention and transfer were completed 20 min. and 1 wk. after acquisition. Outcome (errors) and form scores were derived from participants' performance. Alternating practice resulted in poorer acquisition, retention, and transfer per-generalize to this task, a finding which is attributed to task complexity and the interference associated with practicing the two tasks together.

Task duration in contextual interference

Duration of practice trial on a pursuit rotor task in contextual interference was investigated. Participants practiced at each of 4 angular velocities, with 24 participants completing 28 trials lasting 20 sec., and 24 participants completing 112 trials of 5 sec. Half of the participants in each trial-duration condition practiced in a blocked format and half practiced in a random format. After random practice posttest performance was better than blocked practice when practice-trial duration was 20 sec., but worse when practice-trial duration was 5 sec. This result is not consistent with theoretical explanations of the contextual interference effect and is discussed with reference to the task characteristics and demands of the pursuit rotor.

Principles derived from the study of simple skills do not generalize to complex skill learning

We review research related to the learning of complex motor skills with respect to principles developed on the basis of simple skill learning. Although some factors seem to have opposite effects on the learning of simple and of complex skills, other factors appear to be relevant mainly for the learning of more complex skills. We interpret these apparently contradictory findings as suggesting that situations with low processing demands benefit from practice conditions that increase the load and challenge the performer, whereas practice conditions that result in extremely high load should benefit from conditions that reduce the load to more manageable levels. The findings reviewed here call into question the generalizability of results from studies using simple laboratory tasks to the learning of complex motor skills. They also demonstrate the need to use more complex skills in motor-learning research in order to gain further insights into the learning process.

Variability effects on retention of a motor skill in elementary school children

Variability effects on learning, retention, and transfer of motor skills have been a main issue for scientists involved in laboratory and field research. Variable practice is intended as parameter variations of a generalized motor program as well as rehearsal of different motor programs. Although the benefits deriving from variable practice on motor skill retention appear quite robust in laboratory settings, field investigations have produced mixed results. Hence, the aim of this study was to examine the effects of different variable schedules on the retention of a complex min tor skill in a physical education setting. 61 elementary school children were assigned Blocked/Nonvariable, Blocked/Variable, Serial/Nonvariable, or Serial/Variable schedules, and practiced two tasks (throwing and hurdle running) and a complex skill (jumping) across 14 lessons. Improved performance in the complex skill was found after practice, with the Serial/Nonvariable group outperforming all other groups. Therefore. the rehearsal of different motor programs was beneficial for jumping skill retention, whereas parameter variation was not.