Take it or leave: a five-year prospective study of workplace bullying and indicators of expulsion in working life

Last in, first out? Length of service as a moderator of the relationship between exposure to bullying behaviors and work-related outcomes

In the present study, we proposed and tested a conceptual model of length of service in the organization as a moderator of the relationship between exposure to workplace bullying behaviors and turnover intention, as mediated through job dissatisfaction. Specifically, based on the conservation of resources theory and organizational socialization research, we hypothesized that bullying exposure would be more detrimental to employees relatively new to the organization, and less so to those with a long length of service. We employed a probability sample from the Norwegian workforce (N = 1003), with data collected at two time-points separated by six months. In line with previous research, we found that exposure to workplace bullying behaviors predicts increased levels of stability-adjusted turnover intentions, and, that job dissatisfaction mediates this association. Moreover, the mediation effect was dependent on length of service, such that it only was present at average (50th percentile; 8.5 years) and short employment length (16th percentile; 2.5 years), and was significantly stronger for the latter group. Additionally, a Johnson-Neyman test of significance regions revealed that the moderation effect became non-significant at the 69th percentile (14.6 years of length of service) in the present sample. This indicates that while short length of service represents a risk condition for work-related outcomes of bullying exposure, long length of service may represent a resource relating to individual resilience that accumulates over long time-spans.

Effets de la violence verticale sur le travail d’infirmières soignantes exerçant en milieux hospitaliers : une étude exploratoire

Introduction : more than 39.7% of nurses report being victims of psychological harassment in the workplace. In 60% of cases, the abuse is vertical, involving a person in a position of authority.Context : few studies have examined this phenomenon without conflating it with other forms of workplace violence.Objective : the purpose of this study was to shed light on cases of vertical violence experienced by nurses working in hospitals.Method : data was collected by means of semi-structured interviews with six nurses working in hospitals in the province of Quebec (Canada). Descriptive phenomenology was used to analyze the collected data.Results : the overall effects of the vertical violence experienced by nurses in hospital settings resulted in less diligent and individualized nursing care.Discussion : it is recommended that organizational policies against vertical violence put in place in hospital be enforced in a rigorous and transparent manner. Further investigation is needed to identify the organizational factors that contribute to vertical violence in hospital settings.

Healing the wounds of workplace bullying: Evaluating mental health and workplace participation among victims seeking treatment for common mental disorders

BACKGROUND

Victims of workplace bullying represent a group characterised by severe negative health complaints at risk of losing their foothold in working life. To date, very few studies have investigated the effect of psychological treatment of the health-related problems often facing victims of bullying.

OBJECTIVE

The aim was to investigate if victims of workplace bullying suffering from common mental disorders (CMD) benefit from clinical treatment for their mental health problems at an outpatient clinic treating patients using Metacognitive or Cognitive Behavioural Therapy with work-focus. Criteria were symptom reduction and change in workplace participation. Comparisons were made between the victims of workplace bullying with CMD, a wait-list control group consisting of patients who had also been exposed to bullying yet now awaiting treatment, and other patients not exposed to bullying.

METHODS

The sample comprised of 405 patients from an outpatient clinic in Norway. The study used a naturalistic observational design and data was collected pre-treatment and post-treatment.

RESULTS

The results showed the treatment to be effective in symptom reduction for victims of bullying to a similar degree as patients otherwise not exposed to bullying. Even more, victims receiving treatment had a larger improvement compared to the wait-list control group (p < 0.001). Yet, among patients on sick leave pre-treatment, fewer victims of bullying were fully working by the end of treatment compared to the patients not exposed to workplace bullying.

CONCLUSION

The findings provide ground for optimism for this treatment as an efficient way of dealing with the aftermath of workplace bullying.

Hypocritical leaders who do not walk their talk: An in-depth field study

This research aimed to explore the factors related to leaders who do not walk their talk and the resulting hypocritical behavior negatively impacting an organization and its employees. A convenience sampling of 305 professional employees attending an advanced leadership educational program voluntarily revealed their personal experiences with hypocritical leaders that did not walk their talk. The findings identified leaders who do not walk their talk regarding the top six most frequently cited interview responses. It is with the expectation that organizations can use the results from this qualitative study to develop, identify and understand leaders who do not walk their talk and initiate action to resolve the damaging effects of such undesirable hypocritical behavior.

‘You live and breathe it…’: Exploring experiences of workplace cyberbullying among New Zealand nurses

Cyberbullying presents a new workplace issue with initial research demonstrating strong links to negative outcomes for individuals and organisations across a range of sectors. Yet, detailed accounts of target experiences of cyberbullying remain largely unexamined. To address this crucial research gap, this study explores nurses' experiences of workplace cyberbullying – a profession with high rates of workplace bullying. Adopting a work environment perspective, this paper provides an in-depth examination of eight cases of workplace cyberbullying that emphasise the practical and theoretical complexities associated with this emerging workplace hazard. Specifically, workplace cyberbullying is often experienced within a broader pattern of bullying behaviours, leading to a potentially wider scope of harm for those involved. A new typology of cyberbullying based on the source of perpetration is also presented that contributes to our growing understanding of the issue while extending the knowledge base for the effective management of workplace cyberbullying.

The last resort: Workplace bullying and the consequences of changing jobs

This study investigated the consequences of changing jobs for employees subjected to workplace bullying. First, we hypothesized that bullied employees would be more likely to change jobs than non‐bullied employees. Moreover, we hypothesized that changing jobs would result in a reduction of exposure to bullying behaviors and an alleviation of mental health problems for those bullied at baseline. The study was based on a longitudinal probability sample of the whole Swedish workforce (n = 1,095). The time lag was 18 months. The results supported all hypotheses except one. Those employees who were bullied at baseline were more likely to have changed jobs at follow‐up. Also, for the changers there was a reduction in exposure to subsequent bullying. The actual drop in exposure to bullying behaviors was significant and substantial. This gives further support for the work environment hypothesis, suggesting the work context may be a more important cause than individual characteristics. As for mental health problems, the association between bullying and subsequent anxiety was not significant for those changing jobs, suggesting that leaving a toxic workplace may reduce anxiety relatively quickly. However, depression symptoms were not affected by the change of jobs, and the association between bullying and subsequent depression was the same 18 months later. The conclusion is that changing jobs can be a useful, last resort on an individual level, improving the situation for the victim of bullying. However, it is important to note that it does not solve any underlying organizational problems and risk factors.

Associations between workplace bullying and later benefit recipiency among workers with common mental disorders

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we examined exposure to workplace bullying as a predictor of registry-based benefit recipiency among workers struggling with work participation due to common mental disorders. Further, we examined if the experience of receiving social support moderated the association between workplace bullying and benefit recipiency.

DESIGN

Secondary analyses of a randomized controlled trial.

PATIENTS

People struggling with work participation due to common mental disorders (CMD).

METHODS

Study participants (n = 1193) were from a randomized controlled trial (The At Work and Coping trial (AWaC), trial registration http://www.clinicaltrials.gov NCT01146730), and self-reported CMD as a main obstacle for work participation. Participants were at risk of sickness absence, currently on sickness absence or on long-term benefits. Benefit recipiency indicated sickness absence and/or long-term benefits (i.e., disability pension) at 6-month follow-up.

RESULTS

Of the 1193 participants, 36% reported exposure to workplace bullying. Workplace bullying was significantly associated with benefit recipiency at 6-month follow-up (OR 1.41, CI 1.11-1.79). Social support did not moderate the association between bullying and benefit recipiency.

CONCLUSIONS

The finding that workplace bullying increases the risk of later benefit recipiency suggest that bullying is a significant obstacle for work participation.

Exposure to bullying behaviours, resilience, and return to work self-efficacy in patients on or at risk of sick leave

The study investigated relationships between exposure to bullying behaviours, return to work self-efficacy (RTW-SE) and resilience, and if resilience moderates the bullying-RTW-SE relationship among patients on sick leave or at risk of sick leave due to common mental disorders (CMD). A sample of 675 patients treated in an outpatient clinic was analysed using regressions and moderation analyses by employing SPSS and the Process macro SPSS supplement. The results showed a negative relationship between exposure to bullying behaviours and RTW-SE. There was also a positive main effect for resilience, as patients with high resilience score significantly higher on RTW-SE than patients with low resilience irrespective of levels of bullying. Further, the resilience sub-dimension personal resilience moderated the bullying-RTW-SE relationship, while the sub-dimension interpersonal resilience did not. Patients high on personal resilience showed relatively lower RTW-SE scores when exposed to bullying behaviours, compared to those that were not bullied with high personal resilience levels. Hence, one should take note of the fact that even if resilience may strengthen RTW-SE, bullying is an adverse event which particularly affects individuals who present with relatively high levels of resilience resources, at least when it comes to RTW-SE.

Mental Health Problems as a Risk Factor for Workplace Bullying: The Protective Effect of a Well-Functioning Organization

This study examined a strain-stressor association, when mental health problems may lead to subsequent workplace bullying, and a mechanism of how this can happen. I hypothesized that the association between mental health problems and bullying depends on the perceived role clarity and order in the organization, and that sickness presenteeism (SP) mediates this association. The study is based on a longitudinal probability sample drawn from the total number of employees in Sweden. Workplace bullying, mental health, SP, and role clarity and order in the organization were assessed using a questionnaire. The results showed that mental health problems are associated with an increased risk for subsequent bullying, consistent with previous findings. However, this risk depends on the level of role clarity and order in the organization. The results also show a partial indirect effect via SP. This means that if one has mental health problems and persists in coming to work although one should have stayed at home, the risk of bullying increases. The indirect effect depends also on the level of order in the organization. The findings suggest that individual deficits, such as mental health problems, are associated with subsequent bullying only if organizational deficits are also present.

Clinical Characteristics of Patients Seeking Treatment for Common Mental Disorders Presenting With Workplace Bullying Experiences

BACKGROUND

Targets of workplace bullying tend to develop severe mental health complaints, having increased risk of sick leave and expulsion from the workplace. Hence, these individuals are likely to be overrepresented among patients seeking treatment for common mental disorders (CMD). This study investigated the prevalence of exposure to workplace bullying in a patient group seeking treatment for CMD. Further we explored if exposed and non-exposed patients differed on clinical and work-related characteristics.

METHODS

The sample comprised of 675 patients from an outpatient clinic in Norway and consisted of 70% women and had a mean age of 39 (SD = 10.5) years. The study had a cross-sectional design and differences between the patient groups were analysed using chi-square, Mann-Whitney U-tests and independent sample t-tests.

RESULTS

The prevalence of exposure to bullying was 25.8%. The patients exposed to bullying reported significantly more major depressive disorders (MDDs) measured with the MINI psychiatric interview, higher levels of depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, subjective health complaints, alcohol use, and lower resilience as measured with questionnaires. Twice as many were on full-time sick leave, reported lower work ability, lower return to work self-efficacy, and lower job satisfaction. A majority preferred another job than the one they have today over returning to their current employment.

CONCLUSION

Victims of workplace bullying are a vulnerable group at risk of expulsion from working life, being overrepresented among patients seeking mental health treatment for CMD. One in four patients represented with such experience have higher levels of psychological symptoms and are more often diagnosed with depression as compared to other patients. Thus, this is a problem that should be addressed in clinical settings. If not addressed there is an increased risk of sick leave and permanent exclusion from working life.

Killing two birds with one stone: how intervening when witnessing bullying at the workplace may help both target and the acting observer

Objective

This study examines under which conditions being an observer of bullying can be detrimental to health and well-being. It was hypothesized that health-related problems following observations of bullying are determined by (1) whether the observer has been exposed to bullying her/himself and (2) whether the observer have tried to intervene in the bullying situation that they witnessed.

Methods

The study was based on a longitudinal probability survey of the Swedish workforce, with an 18-month time lag between assessment points (N = 1096).

Results

Witnessing bullying at work were associated with an increase in subsequent levels of mental distress among the observers, although this association became insignificant when adjusting for the observers’ own exposure to bullying. Intervening against bullying moderated the relationship between observations of bullying and mental health problems. Observers who did not try to intervene reported a significant increase in mental health problems at follow-up, whereas there were no significant changes in levels of mental health problems among those who did intervene.

Conclusions

the findings suggest that observer interventions against bullying may be highly beneficial for both the targets and observers of bullying. Organizations should therefore invest in ways to increase constructive bystander behavior in negative social situations at the workplace.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1007/s00420-020-01575-w) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Exposure to bullying behaviours and support from co-workers and supervisors: a three-way interaction and the effect on health and well-being

PURPOSE

Workplace bullying can be very stressful and it has detrimental effects on health and well-being which makes it an important area of study. Social support has traditionally been seen as important in moderating work-related stress. It was hypothesised that the negative association between exposure to bullying behaviours, and health and well-being is moderated by (a) perceived support from close co-workers and (b) perceived supportive leadership. In the study, we also investigated a three-way interaction between exposure to bullying behaviours, perceived support from close co-workers and perceived supportive leadership. This association has not been studied before and add new knowledge to the research field.

METHODS

We used a moderated moderation analysis of workplace bullying, co-worker support and supervisor support using cross-sectional data from a work environment survey with 1383 respondents (75% response rate).

RESULTS

The moderated moderation analysis confirmed the moderating effect of perceived co-worker support but not the moderating effect of perceived supervisor support. There was a three-way interaction, but not in the case of the lowest 12.6% of perceived supervisor support scores.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that the negative effect of workplace bullying on health and well-being is weaker if victims perceive that they have co-worker support, but this protective effect seems to be conditional on the perceived level of supervisor support. In other words, lack of supportive leadership may block the beneficial effect of perceived co-worker support.

Intention to leave among bullied university personnel

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to reveal the degree of intention to leave and the relation between bullying and intention to leave, as well as the relation between features of the working environment and intention to leave among Estonian university personnel.

Design/methodology/approach

A total of 864 faculty members from nine Estonian universities answered the e-mail questionnaire in the Spring of 2014. The nature of bullying was measured with the help of the Negative Acts Questionnaire. The Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire was applied in a survey of characteristics of the work environment. The relations were analysed with the help of structural equation modelling.

Findings

More than one third of the respondents had considered quitting sometimes, quite often, or very often. The results show that perceived bullying is a predictor of intention to leave, whereas a favourable working environment prevents quitting.

Research limitations/implications

The present results can be utilised from at least three perspectives: cultural and institutional studies, leadership practices and personal work control.

Practical implications

Knowing the characteristics of bullying helps in recognising and preventing bullying and aids in improving the working atmosphere at universities.

Originality/value

This study revealed that besides directly, bullying is related to explained intention to leave indirectly, mediated by (negative) work environment perceptions. This indicates that bullying gives rise to an unfavourable working atmosphere and further to intention to leave.

A Scoping Review of Validated Tools to Measure Incivility in Healthcare Settings

OBJECTIVE

To identify and compare validated tools used to assess incivility in healthcare settings.

BACKGROUND

Incivility in the workforce is associated with poor quality outcomes, increased employee turnover, and decreased job satisfaction. Validated tools are essential for accurate measurement of incivility. The aim of this study was to compare characteristics of validated tools for use in a busy clinical setting.

METHODS

In a scoping review, English language research studies using incivility tools published in PubMed or CINAHL between March 1, 2013, and March 14, 2018, were assessed for sound psychometric properties and feasibility of use (eg, short, easy to administer).

RESULTS

After screening 869 articles and full text review of 244, 5 identified tools met the criteria; the Short Negative Acts Questionnaire seemed best suited for use in a busy healthcare setting.

CONCLUSION

Adoption of a standardized and validated incivility tool makes it possible to compare across clinical settings and track progress over time.

Workplace Bullying and Psychological Distress: A Longitudinal Multilevel Analysis Among Japanese Employees

OBJECTIVE

We sought to investigate the contextual effect of workplace bullying on subsequent individual psychological distress and intention to leave.

METHODS

A longitudinal study was conducted among 3142 Japanese employees in the public sector. Both the baseline and follow-up questionnaires inquired about demographic and occupational characteristics, workplace bullying, psychological distress, and intention to leave.

RESULTS

The results of three-level (individual-division-department) multilevel analyses revealed that division-level workplace bullying was associated with increased individual-level psychological distress after adjustment for individual experience of workplace bullying, while the association between individual experience of bullying and psychological distress was not statistically significant in the same model.

CONCLUSION

The results of the current study suggest that the presence of bullying in the workplace can have a detrimental effect on employees' mental health even if they are not personally victimized.

Workplace Bullying as a Predictor of Disability Retirement: A Prospective Registry Study of Norwegian Employees

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to determine 1) whether bullying is related to all-cause disability retirement, 2) whether bullying contributes to the variance in disability retirement above high job demands and lack of job control, and 3) to establish gender differences in the relationship.

METHODS

Survey data from 14,501 Norwegian employees on exposure factors linked to registry data on all-cause disability retirement.

RESULTS

Bullying significantly predicted risk of disability retirement (hazard ratio = 1.55; 95% confidence interval = 1.13 to 2.12). This relationship remained statistically significant after adjusting for job demands and lack of job control. Women had the highest risk of disability, but both bullied men and women had a higher risk of disability than nonbullied employees of the same gender.

CONCLUSION

Bullying is a risk factor for disability retirement. Measures taken to prevent bullying may be beneficial for reducing both health problems and disability retirement.

Social capital and workplace bullying

BACKGROUND

Workplace bullying is a serious stressor with devastating short- and long-term consequences. The concept of organizational social capital may provide insights into the interactional and communicative dynamics of the bullying process and opportunities for prevention.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to explore the association between organizational social capital and being a target or observer of workplace bullying.

METHODS

Based on self-reported cross-sectional data from a large representative sample of the Danish working population (n = 10.037), logistic regression analyses were conducted to explore at the individual level the associations between vertical and horizontal organizational social capital with being a target or observer of workplace bullying.

RESULTS

In the fully adjusted models, low organizational social capital (vertical and horizontal) was associated with significantly increased odds ratios of both self-labelled (vertical: OR = 3.25; CI = 2.34-4.51; horizontal: OR = 3.17; CI = 2.41-4.18) and observed workplace bullying (vertical: OR = 2.09; CI = 1.70-2.56; horizontal: OR = 1.60; CI = 1.35-1.89), when compared with high organizational social capital.

CONCLUSIONS

This study supports that characteristics of the psychosocial work environment are of importance in the development of workplace bullying, and provides focus on the importance of self-reported organizational social capital.

Workplace bullying in risk and safety professionals

INTRODUCTION

Previous research demonstrates that workplace bullying impacts the welfare of victimized employees, with further consequences for the organization and profession. There is, however, a paucity of information relating to the bullying directed at risk and safety professionals. The present study was conducted to address this issue.

METHOD

Risk and safety professionals (N=420) completed the Negative Acts Questionnaire - Revised and Brief Cope, and reported the extent to which they had been pressured to make or amend a risk or safety based decision.

RESULTS

Those experiencing workplace bullying were more likely to engage in a range of coping behaviors, with exposure to work-related and personal bullying particularly influential. Workplace bullying also predicted pressure to make or change a risk or safety based decision. Work related and physically intimidating bullying were particularly important for this aspect of professional practice.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings are discussed with regard to current practice and the support available to risk and safety professionals.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Risk and safety professionals require additional support in relation to workplace bullying and specifically guidance to resist pressure to make or change a risk or safety based decision.

Employment Status of Depressed Individuals in an 11-Year Follow-up: Results From the Finnish Health 2011 Survey

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to describe the employment and mental health status of persons with depressive disorders after an 11-year follow-up, and identify individual and work-related factors that predict adverse outcomes.

METHODS

Two nationally representative health surveys, Health 2000 and its follow-up, Health 2011 were used, and persons with depressive disorders at baseline (n = 275) were re-interviewed after 11 years.

RESULTS

Information on employment status was available for all 263 participants in 2011. About 15.7% had been granted disability pension by 2011, while 55.5% were employed and 18.2% on old-age pension. High job control was the only statistically significant predictor of lower probability of disability pension (adjusted odds ratio 0.42, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] 0.23 to 0.77). Being unmarried (adjusted odds ratio 2.99, 95% CI 1.19 to 7.52) was associated with persistent depressive disorder.

CONCLUSIONS

Job control emerged as an important predictor of long-term employment outcomes among depressed individuals.

Researching Complex and Multi-Level Workplace Factors Affecting Disability and Prolonged Sickness Absence

Purpose There is growing research evidence that workplace factors influence disability outcomes, but these variables reflect a variety of stakeholder perspectives, measurement tools, and methodologies. The goal of this article is to summarize existing research of workplace factors in relation to disability, compare this with employer discourse in the grey literature, and recommend future research priorities. Methods The authors participated in a year-long collaboration that ultimately led to an invited 3-day conference, "Improving Research of Employer Practices to Prevent Disability, held October 14-16, 2015, in Hopkinton, Massachusetts, USA. The collaboration included a topical review of the literature, group conference calls to identify key areas and challenges, drafting of initial documents, review of industry publications, and a conference presentation that included feedback from peer researchers and a question/answer session with a special panel of knowledge experts with direct employer experience. Results Predominant factors in the scientific literature were categorized as physical or psychosocial job demands, work organization and support, and workplace beliefs and attitudes. Employees experiencing musculoskeletal disorders in large organizations were the most frequently studied population. Research varied with respect to the basic unit of assessment (e.g., worker, supervisor, policy level) and whether assessments should be based on worker perceptions, written policies, or observable practices. The grey literature suggested that employers focus primarily on defining roles and responsibilities, standardizing management tools and procedures, being prompt and proactive, and attending to the individualized needs of workers. Industry publications reflected a high reliance of employers on a strict biomedical model in contrast to the more psychosocial framework that appears to guide research designs. Conclusion Assessing workplace factors at multiple levels, within small and medium-sized organizations, and at a more granular level may help to clarify generalizable concepts of organizational support that can be translated to specific employer strategies involving personnel, tools, and practices.

Prospective study of predictors and consequences of insomnia: personality, lifestyle, mental health, and work-related stressors

OBJECTIVE

To prospectively investigate the reciprocal relationships between personality traits, lifestyle factors, mental health, sleepiness, and work-related stressors against insomnia.

METHODS

A total of 799 Norwegian shift-working nurses (mean age 33.2 years, 90% female) participated in this prospective cohort study. They were assessed on self-report instruments (Bergen Insomnia Scale, Diurnal Type Scale, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, Negative Acts Questionnaire-Revised, Work-Family Interface Scale, among others) in 2008/2009 (wave 1) and 2011 (wave 3). Structural equation modeling was employed to investigate the bidirectional relationship between a wide range of individual and work-related variables and insomnia.

RESULTS

Languidity (β = 0.18***), anxiety (β = 0.11**), depression (β = 0.14***), exposure to bullying behavior (β = 0.08*), and negative spillover between work and family life (work to family, β = 0.08*; family to work, β = 0.07*) predicted increased symptoms of insomnia over time. Morningness (β = -0.09*) and positive spillover from work to family (β = -0.11**) predicted less symptoms of insomnia over time. No support was found for night work as a predictor of increased insomnia. Insomnia was a precursor for anxiety (β = 0.11**), but not for depression (*p <0.05, **p <0.01, ***p <0.001).

CONCLUSION

The data suggested that insomnia more often emerges as a consequence of individual and work-related factors than as a precursor to them. The scope of factors causing insomnia, and factors protecting against it, should be further investigated. Insomnia should be considered in prediction models for mental illnesses and as an outcome of adverse work-related experiences.

Do the bullies survive? A five-year, three-wave prospective study of indicators of expulsion in working life among perpetrators of workplace bullying

In recent series of studies, we have shown that targets of workplace bullying are at risk of expulsion in working life, both from current employment (e.g. in terms of changing employer) and from working life itself (e.g. becoming unemployed). The most recent of these, Take It or Leave: A Five-Year Prospective Study of Workplace Bullying and Indicators of Expulsion in Working Life was recently published in Industrial Health, and the present short communication aims to follow up that paper, investigating the possible job "survival" of the perpetrators. A nationally representative sample was employed (n=1,613), and responses were gathered at three time points with a two-year and a five-year time-lag. Outcomes were intention to leave and sickness absence at T1, and sickness absence, change of employer, disability benefit recipiency and unemployment at T2 and T3. The results of regression analyses clearly indicate that the perpetrators' occupational status is largely unchanged, and remains so over time, as opposed to earlier findings regarding the targets of bullying.