Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Genetically Modified Organisms on the use of antibiotic resistance genes as marker genes in genetically modified plants

Accelerating Chloroplast Engineering: A New System for Rapid Generation of Marker-Free Transplastomic Lines of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

'Marker-free' strategies for creating transgenic microorganisms avoid the issue of potential transmission of antibiotic resistance genes to other microorganisms. An already-established strategy for engineering the chloroplast genome (=plastome) of the green microalga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii involves the restoration of photosynthetic function using a recipient strain carrying a plastome mutation in a key photosynthesis gene. Selection for transformant colonies is carried out on minimal media, such that only those cells in which the mutated gene has been replaced with a wild-type copy carried on the transgenic DNA are capable of phototrophic growth. However, this approach can suffer from issues of efficiency due to the slow growth of C. reinhardtii on minimal media and the slow die-back of the untransformed lawn of cells when using mutant strains with a limited photosensitivity phenotype. Furthermore, such phototrophic rescue has tended to rely on existing mutants that are not necessarily ideal for transformation and targeted transgene insertion: Mutants carrying point mutations can easily revert, and those with deletions that do not extend to the intended transgene insertion site can give rise to a sub-population of rescued lines that lack the transgene. In order to improve and accelerate the transformation pipeline for C. reinhardtii, we have created a novel recipient line, HNT6, carrying an engineered deletion in exon 3 of psaA, which encodes one of the core subunits of photosystem I (PSI). Such PSI mutants are highly light-sensitive allowing faster recovery of transformant colonies by selecting for light-tolerance on acetate-containing media, rather than phototrophic growth on minimal media. The deletion extends to a site upstream of psaA-3 that serves as a neutral locus for transgene insertion, thereby ensuring that all of the recovered colonies are transformants containing the transgene. We demonstrate the application of HNT6 using a luciferase reporter.

Antimicrobial Resistance in the Food Chain: Trends, Mechanisms, Pathways, and Possible Regulation Strategies

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) remains of major interest for different types of food stakeholders since it can negatively impact human health on a global scale. Antimicrobial-resistant bacteria and/or antimicrobial resistance genes (transfer in pathogenic bacteria) may contaminate food at any stage, from the field to retail. Research demonstrates that antimicrobial-resistant bacterial infection(s) occur more frequently in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) than in developed countries. Worldwide, foodborne pathogens are a primary cause of morbidity and mortality. The spread of pathogenic bacteria from food to consumers may occur by direct or indirect routes. Therefore, an array of approaches both at the national and international level to control the spread of foodborne pathogens and promote food safety and security are essential. Zoonotic microbes can spread through the environment, animals, humans, and the food chain. Antimicrobial drugs are used globally to treat infections in humans and animals and prophylactically in production agriculture. Research highlights that foods may become contaminated with AMR bacteria (AMRB) during the continuum from the farm to processing to retail to the consumer. To mitigate the risk of AMRB in humans, it is crucial to control antibiotic use throughout food production, both for animal and crop agriculture. The main inferences of this review are (1) routes by which AMRB enters the food chain during crop and animal production and other modes, (2) prevention and control steps for AMRB, and (3) impact on human health if AMR is not addressed globally. A thorough perspective is presented on the gaps in current systems for surveillance of antimicrobial use in food production and/ or AMR in the food chain.

The phosphite oxidoreductase gene, ptxD as a bio-contained chloroplast marker and crop-protection tool for algal biotechnology using Chlamydomonas

Edible microalgae have potential as low-cost cell factories for the production and oral delivery of recombinant proteins such as vaccines, anti-bacterials and gut-active enzymes that are beneficial to farmed animals including livestock, poultry and fish. However, a major economic and technical problem associated with large-scale cultivation of microalgae, even in closed photobioreactors, is invasion by contaminating microorganisms. Avoiding this requires costly media sterilisation, aseptic techniques during set-up and implementation of 'crop-protection' strategies during cultivation. Here, we report a strain improvement approach in which the chloroplast of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is engineered to allow oxidation of phosphite to its bio-available form: phosphate. We have designed a synthetic version of the bacterial gene (ptxD)-encoding phosphite oxidoreductase such that it is highly expressed in the chloroplast but has a Trp→Opal codon reassignment for bio-containment of the transgene. Under mixotrophic conditions, the growth rate of the engineered alga is unaffected when phosphate is replaced with phosphite in the medium. Furthermore, under non-sterile conditions, growth of contaminating microorganisms is severely impeded in phosphite medium. This, therefore, offers the possibility of producing algal biomass under non-sterile conditions. The ptxD gene can also serve as a dominant marker for genetic engineering of any C. reinhardtii strain, thereby avoiding the use of antibiotic resistance genes as markers and allowing the 'retro-fitting' of existing engineered strains. As a proof of concept, we demonstrate the application of our ptxD technology to a strain expressing a subunit vaccine targeting a major viral pathogen of farmed fish.

Taking transgenic rice drought screening to the field

Numerous transgenes have been reported to increase rice drought resistance, mostly in small-scale experiments under vegetative-stage drought stress, but few studies have included grain yield or field evaluations. Different definitions of drought resistance are currently in use for field-based and laboratory evaluations of transgenics, the former emphasizing plant responses that may not be linked to yield under drought. Although those fundamental studies use efficient protocols to uncover and validate gene functions, screening conditions differ greatly from field drought environments where the onset of drought stress symptoms is slow (2-3 weeks). Simplified screening methods, including severely stressed survival studies, are therefore not likely to identify transgenic events with better yield performance under drought in the target environment. As biosafety regulations are becoming established to allow field trials in some rice-producing countries, there is a need to develop relevant screening procedures that scale from preliminary event selection to greenhouse and field trials. Multilocation testing in a range of drought environments may reveal that different transgenes are necessary for different types of drought-prone field conditions. We describe here a pipeline to improve the selection efficiency and reproducibility of results across drought treatments and test the potential of transgenic rice for the development of drought-resistant material for agricultural purposes.

Feasibility of Pisum sativum as an expression system for pharmaceuticals

Based on its high protein content and excellent storage capacity, pea (Pisum sativum), as well as other plants, is considered to be a suitable production platform for protein-based pharmaceuticals. Its capacity to produce high proportions of active recombinant proteins (up to 2% total soluble protein corresponding to approximately 8 mg/g fresh weight) has been proven using pea-derived strong seed-specific promoters. The active antigens produced were also stable for more than 4 years. Pea can be used as a feed additive, up to a proportion of 30% to total feed, despite the presence of lectins. Thus, a low dosage of recombinant pea-based pharmaceuticals is non-hazardous. In addition, it is independent of N-fertilisation, has excellent biosafety characteristics and is accessible to gene transfer. Growth systems with a capacity for high yield are available for the greenhouse (5 t/ha) and, to a limited extent, also in the field (2.3 t/ha). The practicable establishment of pea seed banks allows a continuous production process. Although the use of a pea system is limited by complex transformation procedures, these advantages render pea a promising plant for the production of pharmaceuticals.

Lack of detectable DNA uptake by bacterial gut isolates grown in vitro and by Acinetobacter baylyi colonizing rodents in vivo

Biological risk assessment of food containing recombinant DNA has exposed knowledge gaps related to the general fate of DNA in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). Here, a series of experiments is presented that were designed to determine if genetic transformation of the naturally competent bacterium Acinetobacter baylyi BD413 occurs in the GIT of mice and rats, with feed-introduced bacterial DNA containing a kanamycin resistance gene (nptII). Strain BD413 was found in various gut locations in germ-free mice at 10(3)-10(5) CFU per gram GIT content 24-48 h after administration. However, subsequent DNA exposure of the colonized mice did not result in detectable bacterial transformants, with a detection limit of 1 transformant per 10(3)-10(5) bacteria. Further attempts to increase the likelihood of detection by introducing weak positive selection with kanamycin of putative transformants arising in vivo during a 4-week-long feeding experiment (where the mice received DNA and the recipient cells regularly) did not yield transformants either. Moreover, the in vitro exposure of actively growing A. baylyi cells to gut contents from the stomach, small intestine, cecum or colon contents of rats (with a normal microbiota) fed either purified DNA (50 microg) or bacterial cell lysates did not produce bacterial transformants. The presence of gut content of germfree mice was also highly inhibitory to transformation of A. baylyi, indicating that microbially-produced nucleases are not responsible for the sharp 500- to 1,000,000-fold reduction of transformation frequencies seen. Finally, a range of isolates from the genera Enterococcus, Streptococcus and Bifidobacterium spp. was examined for competence expression in vitro, without yielding any transformants. In conclusion, model choice and methodological constraints severely limit the sample size and, hence, transfer frequencies that can be measured experimentally in the GIT. Our observations suggest the contents of the GIT shield or adsorb DNA, preventing detectable exposure of feed-derived DNA fragments to competent bacteria.

Biosafety considerations for selectable and scorable markers used in cassava (Manihot esculentaCrantz) biotechnology

Cassava is an important subsistence crop grown only in the tropics, and represents a major source of calories for many people in developing countries. Improvements in the areas of resistance to insects and viral diseases, enhanced nutritional qualities, reduced cyanogenic content and modified starch characteristics are urgently needed. Traditional breeding is hampered by the nature of the crop, which has a high degree of heterozygosity, irregular flowering, and poor seed set. Biotechnology has the potential to enhance crop improvement efforts, and genetic engineering techniques for cassava have thus been developed over the past decade. Selectable and scorable markers are critical to efficient transformation technology, and must be evaluated for biosafety, as well as efficiency and cost-effectiveness. In order to facilitate research planning and regulatory submission, the literature on biosafety aspects of the selectable and scorable markers currently used in cassava biotechnology is surveyed. The source, mode of action and current use of each marker gene is described. The potential for toxicity, allergenicity, pleiotropic effects, horizontal gene transfer, and the impact of these on food or feed safety and environmental safety is evaluated. Based on extensive information, the selectable marker genes nptII, hpt, bar/pat, and manA, and the scorable marker gene uidA, all have little risk in terms of biosafety. These appear to represent the safest options for use in cassava biotechnology available at this time.