The Potential Risks Arising from Nanoscience and Nanotechnologies on Food and Feed Safety

Applications of Nanomaterials in Agrifood and Pharmaceutical Industry

Nanotechnology recently emerged among the most exciting science-related innovations. Nanotechnology-produced metal nanoparticles got a lot of attention. This is emerging as a rapidly developing field due to its effective applications that targeted the manufacturing of new materials at the nanoscale level. There is considerable interest in the application of nanomaterials in many areas of industry including agrifood and biomedical products. In the agrifood area, nanomaterials have benefits in diverse areas which include fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides, sensors, and quality stimulants, among other food processing, food packaging, and nutraceuticals to improve nutritional value. These applications in agriculture result in enhanced quality and crop yield, reduction in pollution caused by various chemicals, etc. In the pharmaceutical area, nanomaterials are claimed to ameliorate drug safety and efficacy, as well as bioavailability. They are utilized for targeting various drugs to a specific location in the body. However, there are also concerns that some nanoparticles may have adverse effects on human health. These include titanium dioxide, copper oxides, and other nanomaterials which lead to liver damage, skin damage, lung damage, and various other human health-related problems. This review is aimed at presenting a briefing on the state of the art in the application of nanotechnology in food and human nutrition and drug administration, consumer attitudes, and their challenges and opportunities with future perspectives.

Guidance on risk assessment of nanomaterials to be applied in the food and feed chain: human and animal health

The EFSA has updated the Guidance on risk assessment of the application of nanoscience and nanotechnologies in the food and feed chain, human and animal health. It covers the application areas within EFSA's remit, including novel foods, food contact materials, food/feed additives and pesticides. The updated guidance, now Scientific Committee Guidance on nano risk assessment (SC Guidance on Nano-RA), has taken account of relevant scientific studies that provide insights to physico-chemical properties, exposure assessment and hazard characterisation of nanomaterials and areas of applicability. Together with the accompanying Guidance on Technical requirements for regulated food and feed product applications to establish the presence of small particles including nanoparticles (Guidance on Particle-TR), the SC Guidance on Nano-RA specifically elaborates on physico-chemical characterisation, key parameters that should be measured, methods and techniques that can be used for characterisation of nanomaterials and their determination in complex matrices. The SC Guidance on Nano-RA also details aspects relating to exposure assessment and hazard identification and characterisation. In particular, nanospecific considerations relating to in vitro/in vivo toxicological studies are discussed and a tiered framework for toxicological testing is outlined. Furthermore, in vitro degradation, toxicokinetics, genotoxicity, local and systemic toxicity as well as general issues relating to testing of nanomaterials are described. Depending on the initial tier results, additional studies may be needed to investigate reproductive and developmental toxicity, chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity, immunotoxicity and allergenicity, neurotoxicity, effects on gut microbiome and endocrine activity. The possible use of read-across to fill data gaps as well as the potential use of integrated testing strategies and the knowledge of modes or mechanisms of action are also discussed. The Guidance proposes approaches to risk characterisation and uncertainty analysis.

Synthesis of D-Limonene Loaded Polymeric Nanoparticles with Enhanced Antimicrobial Properties for Potential Application in Food Packaging

Mini-emulsion polymerization was applied for the synthesis of cross-linked polymeric nanoparticles comprised of methyl methacrylate (MMA) and Triethylene Glycol Dimethacrylate (TEGDMA) copolymers, used as matrix-carriers for hosting D-limonene. D-limonene was selected as a model essential oil, well known for its pleasant odor and its enhanced antimicrobial properties. The synthesized particles were assessed for their morphology and geometric characteristics by Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), which revealed the formation of particles with mean diameters at the nanoscale (D[3,2] = 0.135 μm), with a spherical shape, while the dried particles formed larger clusters of several microns (D[3,2] = 80.69 μm). The percentage of the loaded D-limonene was quantified by Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA), complemented by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry analysis coupled with a pyrolysis unit (Py/GC-MS). The results showed that the volatiles emitted by the nanoparticles were composed mainly of D-limonene (10% w/w of dry particles). Particles subjected to higher temperatures tended to decompose. The mechanism that governs the release of D-limonene from the as-synthesized particles was studied by fitting mathematical models to the release data obtained by isothermal TGA analysis of the dry particles subjected to accelerated conditions. The analysis revealed a two-stage release of the volatiles, one governed by D-limonene release and the other governed by TEGDMA release. Finally, the antimicrobial potency of the D-limonene-loaded particles was demonstrated, indicating the successful synthesis of polymeric nanoparticles loaded with D-limonene, owing to enhanced antimicrobial properties. The overall performance of these nanoparticles renders them a promising candidate material for the formation of self-sterilized surfaces with enhanced antimicrobial activity and potential application in food packaging.

Nanotechnologies in Food Science: Applications, Recent Trends, and Future Perspectives

Nanotechnology is a key advanced technology enabling contribution, development, and sustainable impact on food, medicine, and agriculture sectors. Nanomaterials have potential to lead qualitative and quantitative production of healthier, safer, and high-quality functional foods which are perishable or semi-perishable in nature. Nanotechnologies are superior than conventional food processing technologies with increased shelf life of food products, preventing contamination, and production of enhanced food quality. This comprehensive review on nanotechnologies for functional food development describes the current trends and future perspectives of advanced nanomaterials in food sector considering processing, packaging, security, and storage. Applications of nanotechnologies enhance the food bioavailability, taste, texture, and consistency, achieved through modification of particle size, possible cluster formation, and surface charge of food nanomaterials. In addition, the nanodelivery-mediated nutraceuticals, synergistic action of nanomaterials in food protection, and the application of nanosensors in smart food packaging for monitoring the quality of the stored foods and the common methods employed for assessing the impact of nanomaterials in biological systems are also discussed.

Realistic Evaluation of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticle Exposure in Chewing Gum

There is growing concern about the presence of nanoparticles (NPs) in titanium dioxide (TiO₂) as food additive (E171). To realistically estimate the number and the amount of TiO₂ NPs ingested with food, we applied a transmission electron microscopy method combined with inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry. Different percentages of TiO₂ NPs (6-18%) were detected in E171 from various suppliers. In the eight chewing gums analyzed as food prototypes, TiO₂ NPs were absent in one sample and ranged 0.01-0.66 mg/gum, corresponding to 7-568 billion NPs/gum, in the other seven. We estimated that the mass-based TiO₂ NPs ingested with chewing gums by the European population ranged from 0.28 to 112.40 μg/kg b.w./day, and children ingested more nanosized titanium than adolescents and adults. Although this level may appear negligible it corresponds to 0.1-84 billion TiO₂ NPs/kg b.w/day, raising important questions regarding their potential accumulation in the body, possibly causing long-term effects on consumers' health.

Nanomaterials in consumer products: a challenging analytical problem

Many products used in everyday life are made with the assistance of nanotechnologies. Cosmetic, pharmaceuticals, sunscreen, powdered food are only few examples of end products containing nano-sized particles (NPs), generally added to improve the product quality. To evaluate correctly benefits vs. risks of engineered nanomaterials and consequently to legislate in favor of consumer's protection, it is necessary to know the hazards connected with the exposure levels. This information implies transversal studies and a number of different competences. On analytical point of view the identification, quantification and characterization of NPs in food matrices and in cosmetic or personal care products pose significant challenges, because NPs are usually present at low concentration levels and the matrices, in which they are dispersed, are complexes and often incompatible with analytical instruments that would be required for their detection and characterization. This paper focused on some analytical techniques suitable for the detection, characterization and quantification of NPs in food and cosmetics products, reports their recent application in characterizing specific metal and metal-oxide NPs in these two important industrial and market sectors. The need of a characterization of the NPs as much as possible complete, matching complementary information about different metrics, possible achieved through validate procedures, is what clearly emerges from this research. More work should be done to produce standardized materials and to set-up methodologies to determine number-based size distributions and to get quantitative date about the NPs in such a complex matrices.