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Taroncher M, Zingales V, Rodríguez-Carrasco Y, Ruiz MJ. Identification of Biotransformation Products of T-2 Toxin in HepG2 Cells Using LC-Q-TOF MS. Foods 2024; 13:1501. [PMID: 38790801 PMCID: PMC11120489 DOI: 10.3390/foods13101501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2024] [Revised: 05/02/2024] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
The T-2 toxin (T-2) is a type A trichothecene found in cereals. The formation of metabolites is a frequent cause of mycotoxin-induced toxicity. In this work, the conversion of T-2 during biotransformation reactions in HepG2 cells was evaluated. For this, HepG2 cells were exposed to 30 (IC50/2) and 60 (IC50) nM of T-2 for 0, 1, 2, 3, 6, 8 and 24 h, and the concentrations of T-2 and its metabolites HT-2, T2-triol, T2-tetraol and neosolaniol were determined in both the cell fraction and culture medium through liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry-time of flight (LC-Q-TOF MS). Results showed a fast metabolization of T-2 (>90%) during the first 2 h, with HT-2 as its main (>95%) biotransformation product. The cell fraction showed higher levels (p < 0.05) of HT-2 (39.9 ± 2.1 nM) compared to the culture medium (12.53 ± 2.4 nM). This trend was also observed for the identified metabolites. T2-triol reached its maximum concentration (1.7 ± 0.4 nM) at 2 h, and at later times a time-dependent increase in the T2-tetraol and neosolaniol concentrations was observed. The identification of T-2 metabolites shows the need to continue combined toxicity studies of mycotoxins for a correct risk characterization of these natural contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mercedes Taroncher
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Science, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain; (M.T.); (V.Z.); (M.J.R.)
- Research Group Alternative Methods for Determining Toxic Effects and Risk Assessment of Contaminants and Mixtures (RiskTox; GIUV2021-513), University of Valencia, 46100 València, Spain
| | - Veronica Zingales
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Science, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain; (M.T.); (V.Z.); (M.J.R.)
- Research Group Alternative Methods for Determining Toxic Effects and Risk Assessment of Contaminants and Mixtures (RiskTox; GIUV2021-513), University of Valencia, 46100 València, Spain
| | - Yelko Rodríguez-Carrasco
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Science, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain; (M.T.); (V.Z.); (M.J.R.)
- Research Group Alternative Methods for Determining Toxic Effects and Risk Assessment of Contaminants and Mixtures (RiskTox; GIUV2021-513), University of Valencia, 46100 València, Spain
| | - María José Ruiz
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Science, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain; (M.T.); (V.Z.); (M.J.R.)
- Research Group Alternative Methods for Determining Toxic Effects and Risk Assessment of Contaminants and Mixtures (RiskTox; GIUV2021-513), University of Valencia, 46100 València, Spain
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Oluwakayode A, Greer B, Meneely J, Berthiller F, Krska R, Medina A. Impact of Environmental Conditions on the Concentrations of Trichothecenes, Their Glucosides, and Emerging Fusarium Toxins in Naturally Contaminated, Irradiated, and Fusarium langsethiae Inoculated Oats. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:166. [PMID: 38668591 PMCID: PMC11055103 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16040166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2024] [Revised: 03/08/2024] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Trichothecenes produced by Fusarium species are commonly detected in oats. However, the ratios of the concentrations of free trichothecenes and their conjugates and how they are impacted by different interacting environmental conditions are not well documented. This study aims to examine the effect of water activity (0.95 and 0.98 aw) and temperature (20 and 25 °C) stress on the production of T-2 and HT-2 toxins, deoxynivalenol and their conjugates, as well as diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS). Multiple mycotoxins were detected using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry from 64 contaminated oat samples. The highest concentrations of HT-2-glucoside (HT-2-Glc) were observed at 0.98 aw and 20 °C, and were higher than other type A trichothecenes in the natural oats' treatments. However, no statistical differences were found between the mean concentrations of HT-2-Glc and HT-2 toxins in all storage conditions analysed. DAS concentrations were generally low and highest at 0.95 aw and 20 °C, while deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside levels were highest at 0.98 aw and 20 °C in the naturally contaminated oats. Emerging mycotoxins such as beauvericin, moniliformin, and enniatins mostly increased with a rise in water activity and temperature in the naturally contaminated oats treatment. This study reinforces the importance of storage aw and temperature conditions in the high risk of free and modified toxin contamination of small cereal grains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abimbola Oluwakayode
- Applied Mycology Group, Environment and AgriFood Theme, Cranfield University, College Rd., Wharley End, Bedford MK43 0AL, UK;
| | - Brett Greer
- Institute for Global Food Security, National Measurement Laboratory: Centre of Excellence in Agriculture and Food Integrity, Queen’s University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK; (B.G.); (J.M.); (R.K.)
- The International Joint Research Centre on Food Security (IJC-FOODSEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Pahonyothin Road, Khong Luang 12120, Thailand
| | - Julie Meneely
- Institute for Global Food Security, National Measurement Laboratory: Centre of Excellence in Agriculture and Food Integrity, Queen’s University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK; (B.G.); (J.M.); (R.K.)
- The International Joint Research Centre on Food Security (IJC-FOODSEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Pahonyothin Road, Khong Luang 12120, Thailand
| | - Franz Berthiller
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology IFA-Tulln, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, 3430 Tulln, Austria;
| | - Rudolf Krska
- Institute for Global Food Security, National Measurement Laboratory: Centre of Excellence in Agriculture and Food Integrity, Queen’s University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK; (B.G.); (J.M.); (R.K.)
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology IFA-Tulln, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, 3430 Tulln, Austria;
| | - Angel Medina
- Applied Mycology Group, Environment and AgriFood Theme, Cranfield University, College Rd., Wharley End, Bedford MK43 0AL, UK;
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Pierzgalski A, Bryła M, Cramer B, Humpf HU, Twarużek M. Co-occurrence of T-2 and HT-2 Mycotoxins and α and β Anomers of Their Glucosides in Wheat and Oat Grains. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2024; 72:3150-3159. [PMID: 38295269 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.3c07465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2024]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to simultaneously determine T-2 and HT-2 toxins and the α and β anomers of their glucosides to assess their content in wheat and oat grains harvested in Poland (2020-2022). Of 298 wheat samples, only 14 (5%) contained the sum of the T-2 and HT-2 toxins (average 34.2 μg/kg; 10.6-67.7 μg/kg). In oat (n = 129), these compounds were detected much more frequently (70% of samples) at an average level of 107.5 μg/kg (6.9-949.1 μg/kg). The sum of T-2 and HT-2 glucosides was detectable in 3% of the wheat (average 16.3 μg/kg; 7.1-39.4 μg/kg) and 65% of the oat samples (average 35.1 μg/kg; 4.0-624.1 μg/kg). Following the study, T-2-3-α-glucoside was identified as the only naturally occurring anomer, while both anomers of HT-2-3-glucosides were detected with higher contents and occurrence rates of HT-2-3-β-glucoside than the α anomer of this compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Pierzgalski
- Department of Food Safety and Chemical Analysis, Prof. Waclaw Dabrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology-State Research Institute, Rakowiecka 36, Warsaw 02-532, Poland
| | - Marcin Bryła
- Department of Food Safety and Chemical Analysis, Prof. Waclaw Dabrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology-State Research Institute, Rakowiecka 36, Warsaw 02-532, Poland
| | - Benedikt Cramer
- Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstr. 45, Münster 48149, Germany
| | - Hans-Ulrich Humpf
- Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstr. 45, Münster 48149, Germany
| | - Magdalena Twarużek
- Department of Physiology and Toxicology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Kazimierz Wielki University, Chodkiewicza 30, Bydgoszcz 85-064, Poland
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Notenboom S, Hoogenveen RT, Zeilmaker MJ, Van den Brand AD, Assunção R, Mengelers MJB. Development of a Generic PBK Model for Human Biomonitoring with an Application to Deoxynivalenol. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:569. [PMID: 37755995 PMCID: PMC10535232 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15090569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Revised: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/06/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxicokinetic modelling provides a powerful tool in relating internal human exposure (i.e., assessed through urinary biomarker levels) to external exposure. Chemical specific toxicokinetic models are available; however, this specificity prevents their application to similar contaminants or to other routes of exposure. For this reason, we investigated whether a generic physiological-based kinetic (PBK) model might be a suitable alternative for a biokinetic model of deoxynivalenol (DON). IndusChemFate (ICF) was selected as a generic PBK model, which could be fit for purpose. Being suited for simulating multiple routes of exposure, ICF has particularly been used to relate the inhalation and dermal exposure of industrial chemicals to their urinary excretion. For the first time, the ICF model was adapted as a generic model for the human biomonitoring of mycotoxins, thereby extending its applicability domain. For this purpose, chemical-specific data for DON and its metabolites were collected directly from the literature (distribution and metabolism) or indirectly (absorption and excretion) by fitting the ICF model to previously described urinary excretion data. The obtained results indicate that this generic model can be used to model the urinary excretion of DON and its glucuronidated metabolites following dietary exposure to DON. Additionally, the present study establishes the basis for further development of the model to include an inhalation exposure route alongside the oral exposure route.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvia Notenboom
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3721 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands; (R.T.H.); (M.J.Z.); (A.D.V.d.B.); (M.J.B.M.)
| | - Rudolf T. Hoogenveen
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3721 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands; (R.T.H.); (M.J.Z.); (A.D.V.d.B.); (M.J.B.M.)
| | - Marco J. Zeilmaker
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3721 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands; (R.T.H.); (M.J.Z.); (A.D.V.d.B.); (M.J.B.M.)
| | - Annick D. Van den Brand
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3721 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands; (R.T.H.); (M.J.Z.); (A.D.V.d.B.); (M.J.B.M.)
| | - Ricardo Assunção
- Egas Moniz Center for Interdisciplinary Research (CiiEM), Egas Moniz School of Health & Science, Caparica, 2829-511 Almada, Portugal;
| | - Marcel J. B. Mengelers
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3721 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands; (R.T.H.); (M.J.Z.); (A.D.V.d.B.); (M.J.B.M.)
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Martínez-Alonso C, Taroncher M, Rodríguez-Carrasco Y, Ruiz MJ. Evaluation of the Bioaccessible Fraction of T-2 Toxin from Cereals and Its Effect on the Viability of Caco-2 Cells Exposed to Tyrosol. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:493. [PMID: 37624250 PMCID: PMC10467075 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15080493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2023] [Revised: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 08/03/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The bioaccessibility of mycotoxins is an important factor that has to be considered when assessing the risk they pose to human health. Bioactive compounds like phenolics could play a protective role against the toxic effects of contaminants. In this work, the bioaccessible fraction of the T-2 toxin (T-2) contained in breakfast cereals and its effect on the viability of Caco-2 cells were investigated. Furthermore, the effect of tyrosol (a polyphenol abundant in EVOO) on T-2-induced cytotoxicity was evaluated in the same cell line. After standardized in vitro gastrointestinal digestion, the T-2 toxin was released from T-2-spiked breakfast cereals and further quantified by UHPLC-MS/MS. The bioaccessible fraction of T-2 was 51 ± 4%. The cell viability study was performed by pre-treating the cells for 24 h with tyrosol (25, 50 and 100 µM) and subsequently adding T-2 at 15 nM or by treating the cells with a combination of tyrosol and T-2. In the simultaneous treatment, 25 µM tyrosol prevented the toxic effects produced by the exposure to T-2 at 15 nM; however, cytotoxic effects were observed for the other combinations tested. The pre-treatment of Caco-2 cells with tyrosol did not attenuate the cytotoxic effects caused by exposure to T-2. These results suggest that tyrosol at low concentrations (25 µM) could exert a cytoprotective effect on Caco-2 cells against 15 nM T-2 when administered simultaneously with T-2. However, more studies are required to corroborate this hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Yelko Rodríguez-Carrasco
- Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Food Science, Toxicology and Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Burjassot, 46100 Valencia, Spain; (C.M.-A.); (M.T.); (M.-J.R.)
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6
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Venslovas E, Mankevičienė A, Kochiieru Y, Janavičienė S, Dabkevičius Z, Bartkevičs V, Bērziņa Z, Pavlenko R. The Effect of Ustilago maydis and Delayed Harvesting on A- and B-Type Trichothecene Concentrations in Maize Grain. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:794. [PMID: 37623565 PMCID: PMC10455307 DOI: 10.3390/jof9080794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2023] [Revised: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate whether, in the context of a higher incidence of Ustilago maydis and Fusarium spp. at optimal and delayed harvest times, a higher incidence of mycotoxin contamination in maize grains could be expected. The field experiment was carried out at the Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry experimental fields over three consecutive years (2020-2022). Two maize hybrids (Duxxbury and Lapriora) with different FAO numbers were used. The experimental design in the field was a randomized complete block design. Harvesting took place at three different times: first at physiological maturity, and then 10 (±2) and 20 (±2) days after the first harvest. Each hybrid had four repetitions at different harvest times. The U. maydis infection was only detected in 2021 and after the first harvest cobs were further divided into four different groups with four repetitions: healthy cobs, cobs visually infected with Fusarium spp., cobs visually infected with common smut, and cobs visually infected with both pathogens. No U. maydis-damaged maize cobs were found in 2020 and 2022. The levels of Fusarium microscopic fungi in maize grains were also from 4 to 16 times higher in 2021 than in 2020 and 2022. Harvest delays in 2020 led to a significant deoxynivalenol concentration increase in the Duxxbury hybrid and an HT-2 concentration increase in the Lapriora hybrid. In 2021, deoxynivalenol, 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol, 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol, and HT-2 concentrations significantly rose in both hybrids, but the T-2 concentration significantly increased only in the Lapriora hybrid. Deoxynivalenol concentrations were, respectively, 110 and 14.6 times higher than in cobs only infected with Fusarium spp. or U. maydis. Concentrations of 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol were, respectively, 60, 67, and 43 times higher than in asymptomatic cobs and cobs only infected with Fusarium spp. or U. maydis. Cobs contaminated with both pathogens also had higher concentrations of 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol. T-2 and HT-2 were detected in maize grains harvested from cobs infected only with Fusarium spp. The presence of U. maydis and Fusarium fungi in maize cobs, along with harvest delays, led to significant increases in mycotoxin concentrations, highlighting the importance of timely harvesting and pathogen management to mitigate mycotoxin contamination in maize grains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eimantas Venslovas
- Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Instituto al. 1, LT-58344 Akademija, Lithuania
| | - Audronė Mankevičienė
- Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Instituto al. 1, LT-58344 Akademija, Lithuania
| | - Yuliia Kochiieru
- Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Instituto al. 1, LT-58344 Akademija, Lithuania
| | - Sigita Janavičienė
- Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Instituto al. 1, LT-58344 Akademija, Lithuania
| | - Zenonas Dabkevičius
- Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Instituto al. 1, LT-58344 Akademija, Lithuania
| | - Vadims Bartkevičs
- Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment “BIOR”, Lejupes Iela 3, LV-1076 Riga, Latvia
| | - Zane Bērziņa
- Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment “BIOR”, Lejupes Iela 3, LV-1076 Riga, Latvia
| | - Romans Pavlenko
- Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment “BIOR”, Lejupes Iela 3, LV-1076 Riga, Latvia
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Martiník J, Boško R, Svoboda Z, Běláková S, Benešová K, Pernica M. Determination of mycotoxins and their dietary exposure assessment in pale lager beers using immunoaffinity columns and UPLC-MS/MS. Mycotoxin Res 2023:10.1007/s12550-023-00492-4. [PMID: 37332076 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-023-00492-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Revised: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/20/2023]
Abstract
The use of contaminated raw materials can lead to the transfer of mycotoxins into the final product, including beer. This study describes the use of the commercially available immunoaffinity column 11+Myco MS-PREP® and UPLC-MS/MS for the determination of mycotoxins in pale lager-type beers brewed in Czech Republic and other European countries. The additional aim of the work was to develop, optimize and validate this analytical method. Validation parameters such as linearity, limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), precision and accuracy were tested. The calibration curves were linear with correlation coefficients (R2 > 0.99) for all mycotoxins under investigation. The LOD ranged from 0.1 to 50 ng/L and LOQ from 0.4 to 167 ng/L. Recoveries of the selected analytes ranged from 72.2 to 101.1%, and the relative standard deviation under conditions repeatability (RSDr) did not exceed 16.3% for any mycotoxin. The validated procedure was successfully applied for the analysis of mycotoxins in a total of 89 beers from the retail network. The results were also processed using advanced chemometric techniques and compared with similar published studies. The toxicological impact was taken into account.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Martiník
- Research Institute of Brewing and Malting. Mostecká 7, 614 00, Brno, Czech Republic
- Institute of Food Chemistry and Biotechnology, Faculty of Chemistry, Brno University of Technology, Purkyňova 118, 612 00, Brno, Czech Republic
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 5 166 28, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Rastislav Boško
- Research Institute of Brewing and Malting. Mostecká 7, 614 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Zdeněk Svoboda
- Research Institute of Brewing and Malting. Mostecká 7, 614 00, Brno, Czech Republic
- Institute of Food Chemistry and Biotechnology, Faculty of Chemistry, Brno University of Technology, Purkyňova 118, 612 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Sylvie Běláková
- Research Institute of Brewing and Malting. Mostecká 7, 614 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Karolína Benešová
- Research Institute of Brewing and Malting. Mostecká 7, 614 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Marek Pernica
- Research Institute of Brewing and Malting. Mostecká 7, 614 00, Brno, Czech Republic.
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Malir F, Pickova D, Toman J, Grosse Y, Ostry V. Hazard characterisation for significant mycotoxins in food. Mycotoxin Res 2023; 39:81-93. [PMID: 36930431 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-023-00478-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Abstract
This review updates the current status of activities related to hazard characterisation for mycotoxins, with special reference to regulatory work accomplished within the European Union. Because the relevant information on these topics is widely scattered in the scientific literature, this review intends to provide a condensed overview on the most pertinent aspects. Human health risk assessment is a procedure to estimate the nature and potential for harmful effects of mycotoxins on human health due to exposure to them via contaminated food. This assessment involves hazard identification, hazard characterisation, exposure assessment, and risk characterisation. Mycotoxins covered in this review are aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, cyclopiazonic acid, citrinin, trichothecenes (deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, T-2, and HT-2 toxins), fumonisins, zearalenone, patulin, and ergot alkaloids. For mycotoxins with clear genotoxic/carcinogenic properties, the focus is on the margin of exposure approach. One of its goals is to document predictive characterisation of the human hazard, based on studies in animals using conditions of low exposure. For the other, non-genotoxic toxins, individual 'no adverse effect levels' have been established, but structural analogues or modified forms may still complicate assessment. During the process of hazard characterisation, each identified effect is assessed for human relevance. The estimation of a 'safe dose' is the hazard characterisation endpoint. The final aim of all of these activities is to establish a system, which is able to minimise and control the risk for the consumer from mycotoxins in food. Ongoing research on mycotoxins constantly comes up with new findings, which may have to be implemented into this system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frantisek Malir
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Rokitanskeho 62, CZ-50003, Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic.
| | - Darina Pickova
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Rokitanskeho 62, CZ-50003, Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Jakub Toman
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Rokitanskeho 62, CZ-50003, Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Yann Grosse
- The IARC Monographs Programme, International Agency for Research On Cancer (retired), Lyon, France
| | - Vladimir Ostry
- Center for Health, Nutrition and Food in Brno, National Institute of Public Health, Palackeho 3a, 61242, Brno, Czech Republic
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Wang Y, Liu Y, Huang T, Chen Y, Song W, Chen F, Jiang Y, Zhang C, Yang X. Nrf2: A Main Responsive Element of the Toxicity Effect Caused by Trichothecene (T-2) Mycotoxin. TOXICS 2023; 11:393. [PMID: 37112621 PMCID: PMC10146852 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11040393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2023] [Revised: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
T-2 toxin, the most toxic type A trichothecene mycotoxin, is produced by Fusarium, and is widely found in contaminated feed and stored grains. T-2 toxin is physicochemically stable and is challenging to eradicate from contaminated feed and cereal, resulting in food contamination that is inescapable and poses a major hazard to both human and animal health, according to the World Health Organization. Oxidative stress is the upstream cause of all pathogenic variables, and is the primary mechanism through which T-2 toxin causes poisoning. Nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) also plays a crucial part in oxidative stress, iron metabolism and mitochondrial homeostasis. The major ideas and emerging trends in future study are comprehensively discussed in this review, along with research progress and the molecular mechanism of Nrf2's involvement in the toxicity impact brought on by T-2 toxin. This paper could provide a theoretical foundation for elucidating how Nrf2 reduces oxidative damage caused by T-2 toxin, and a theoretical reference for exploring target drugs to alleviate T-2 toxin toxicity with Nrf2 molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youshuang Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, No. 15 Longzihu University Park, Zhengdong New District, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Yu Liu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, No. 15 Longzihu University Park, Zhengdong New District, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Tingyu Huang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, No. 15 Longzihu University Park, Zhengdong New District, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Yunhe Chen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, No. 15 Longzihu University Park, Zhengdong New District, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Wenxi Song
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, No. 15 Longzihu University Park, Zhengdong New District, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Fengjuan Chen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, No. 15 Longzihu University Park, Zhengdong New District, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Yibao Jiang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Cong Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, No. 15 Longzihu University Park, Zhengdong New District, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Xu Yang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, No. 15 Longzihu University Park, Zhengdong New District, Zhengzhou 450002, China
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Zhang X, Li B, Huo S, Du J, Zhang J, Song M, Cui Y, Li Y. T-2 Toxin Induces Kidney Fibrosis via the mtROS-NLRP3-Wnt/β-Catenin Axis. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2022; 70:13765-13777. [PMID: 36239691 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c05816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
T-2 toxin causes kidney fibrosis. Wnt/β-catenin signaling promotes kidney fibrosis when sustained and activated. However, whether T-2-induced kidney fibrosis involves Wnt/β-catenin signaling activation has not been explored yet. T-2 toxin causes renal mitochondrial damage, leading to mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS) overproduction and NLRP3-inflammasome activation. The activated NLRP3-inflammasome can mediate fibrosis. However, whether the NLRP3-inflammasome can be mediated by mtROS and further regulate T-2-induced kidney fibrosis through Wnt/β-catenin signaling is unclear. In this study, first, we confirmed that T-2 toxin caused Wnt/β-catenin signaling activation in mice kidneys and HK-2 cells. Second, we confirmed that mtROS activated the NLRP3-inflammasome in T-2-exposed mice kidneys and HK-2 cells. Third, we confirmed that the NLRP3-inflammasome regulated the Wnt/β-catenin signaling in T-2 toxin-exposed mice kidneys and HK-2 cells. Finally, we confirmed that Wnt/β-catenin signaling regulated fibrosis in T-2 toxin-exposed mice kidneys and HK-2 cells. The above results confirm that T-2 toxin induces kidney fibrosis via the mtROS-NLRP3-Wnt/β-catenin axis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuliang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of the Provincial Education, Department of Heilongjiang for Common Animal Disease Prevention and Treatment, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Bo Li
- Key Laboratory of the Provincial Education, Department of Heilongjiang for Common Animal Disease Prevention and Treatment, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Siming Huo
- Key Laboratory of the Provincial Education, Department of Heilongjiang for Common Animal Disease Prevention and Treatment, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Jiayu Du
- Key Laboratory of the Provincial Education, Department of Heilongjiang for Common Animal Disease Prevention and Treatment, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Jian Zhang
- Key Laboratory of the Provincial Education, Department of Heilongjiang for Common Animal Disease Prevention and Treatment, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Miao Song
- Key Laboratory of the Provincial Education, Department of Heilongjiang for Common Animal Disease Prevention and Treatment, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Yilong Cui
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Inner Mongolia University for Nationalities, 028000 Tongliao, China
| | - Yanfei Li
- Key Laboratory of the Provincial Education, Department of Heilongjiang for Common Animal Disease Prevention and Treatment, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
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11
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Tan H, Zhou H, Guo T, Zhou Y, Wang S, Liu X, Zhang Y, Ma L. Matrix-associated mycotoxins in foods, cereals and feedstuffs: A review on occurrence, detection, transformation and future challenges. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2022; 64:3206-3219. [PMID: 36205056 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2131724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Matrix-associated mycotoxins that bind with macromolecular components through covalent or non-covalent interactions easily occur in various cereals, cereal-based products, and cereal-based feedstuff. They are "masked" by macro-components, causing the underestimation of total exposure risk of mycotoxins. Most of the current reports focus on the free and modified mycotoxins, while the matrix-associated forms are ignored but still can exert toxic effects after ingestion. In this paper, current researches and future prospects of matrix-associated mycotoxins are reviewed. Especially, a focus is set on the transformation of matrix-associated mycotoxins with their free forms during metabolism and food processing. Enzymes, temperature and pH levels during food processing can induce the interconversion of matrix-associated mycotoxins with free mycotoxins. Furthermore, the analytical methods targeted on matrix-associated mycotoxins are discussed. Due to the lack of efficient methods releasing the mycotoxins from matrix, the standard analytical methods has not developed so far. Also, we further analyzed the challenges of matrix-associated mycotoxins about variety, occurrence, toxicity and transformation, exposure assessment, which contributes to establish preventive measures to control their hazards for consumers. Overall, this overview is significant for perfecting risk assessment, as well as developing effective prevention and control actions to matrix-associated mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongxia Tan
- College of Food Science, Southwest University, Chongqing, P.R. China
| | - Hongyuan Zhou
- College of Food Science, Southwest University, Chongqing, P.R. China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Speciality Food Co-Built by Sichuan and Chongqing, Chongqing, P.R. China
- Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Citrus Fruits, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Southwest University, Chongqing, P.R. China
| | - Ting Guo
- College of Food Science, Southwest University, Chongqing, P.R. China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Speciality Food Co-Built by Sichuan and Chongqing, Chongqing, P.R. China
- Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Citrus Fruits, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Southwest University, Chongqing, P.R. China
| | - Ying Zhou
- College of Food Science, Southwest University, Chongqing, P.R. China
- Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Citrus Fruits, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Southwest University, Chongqing, P.R. China
| | - Shuo Wang
- College of Food Science, Southwest University, Chongqing, P.R. China
- School of Medicine, Tianjin Key Lab Food Science and Health, Nankai University, Tianjin, P.R. China
| | - Xiaozhu Liu
- Foshan Micro Wonders Biotechnology Co., Ltd, Guangdong, P.R. China
| | - Yuhao Zhang
- College of Food Science, Southwest University, Chongqing, P.R. China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Speciality Food Co-Built by Sichuan and Chongqing, Chongqing, P.R. China
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence Analysis and Molecular Sensing (Southwest University), Ministry of Education, Chongqing, P.R. China
| | - Liang Ma
- College of Food Science, Southwest University, Chongqing, P.R. China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Speciality Food Co-Built by Sichuan and Chongqing, Chongqing, P.R. China
- Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Citrus Fruits, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Southwest University, Chongqing, P.R. China
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12
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Deoxynivalenol and T-2 Toxin as Major Concerns in Durum Wheat from Italy. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14090627. [PMID: 36136565 PMCID: PMC9503377 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14090627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2022] [Revised: 08/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Fusarium Head Blight is a devastating disease of wheat caused by a complex of Fusarium species producing a wide range of mycotoxins. Fusarium species occurrence is variable in different geographical areas and subjected to a continuous evolution in their distribution. A total of 141 durum wheat field samples were collected in different regions of Italy in three years, and analyzed for Fusarium species and related mycotoxin occurrence. Mycotoxin contamination varied according to year and geographical origin. The highest mycotoxin contamination was detected in 2014. Deoxynivalenol was detected with an average of 240 µg/kg only in Central and Northern Italy; and T-2 and HT-2 toxins with an average of 150 µg/kg in Southern Italy. Approximately 80% of samples from Southern Italy in 2013/2014 showed T-2 and HT-2 levels over the EU recommended limits. Fusarium graminearum occurred mostly in Northern Italy, while F. langsethiae occurred in Southern Italy. These data showed that a real mycotoxin risk related to Fusarium exists on the whole in Italy, but varies according with geographical areas and environmental conditions. Consistent monitoring of Fusarium species and related mycotoxin distribution on a long period is worthwhile to generate more accurate knowledge on Fusarium species profile and mycotoxins associated and better establish the climatic change impact on wheat Fusarium epidemiology.
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13
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Enzyme immunoassays for the detection of mycotoxins in plant-based milk alternatives: pitfalls and limitations. Mycotoxin Res 2022; 38:265-274. [PMID: 36053453 PMCID: PMC9587108 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-022-00467-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2022] [Revised: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Plant-based milk alternatives (PBMAs) are a potential source of mycotoxin uptake. To ensure food safety, simple and rapid testing methods of PBMAs for mycotoxins are therefore required. This study investigated the applicability of enzyme immunoassay (EIA) methods for direct testing of PBMAs without sample extraction. Mycotoxin analyses included aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), sterigmatocystin (STC), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), and T-2/HT-2-toxin (T-2/HT-2). It was found that the PBMA matrix negatively affected the EIA to varying degrees, thus affecting the reliability of the results. A dilution of PBMAs of at least 1:8 was necessary to overcome matrix interference. This resulted in calculated detection limits of 0.4 µg/L (AFB1), 2 µg/L (STC), 0.08 µg/L (OTA), 16 µg/L (DON), and 0.4 µg/L (T-2/HT-2). After analysis of 54 PBMA products from German retail stores, positive results in at least one test system were obtained for 23 samples. However, most positive results were near the calculated detection limit. Control analyses of selected samples by LC–MS/MS for AFB1, STC, and OTA qualitatively confirmed the presence of trace amounts of STC in some samples, but quantitative agreement was poor. It was concluded that the high diversity of ingredients used in PBMAs led to a highly variable degree of sample matrix interference even in a 1:8 dilution. Since the use of higher dilutions conflicts with the need to achieve low detection limits, the application of EIA for routine mycotoxin analysis in PBMA for mycotoxins requires further study on the development of a feasible sample preparation method.
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14
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Claeys L, De Saeger S, Scelo G, Biessy C, Casagrande C, Nicolas G, Korenjak M, Fervers B, Heath AK, Krogh V, Luján-Barroso L, Castilla J, Ljungberg B, Rodriguez-Barranco M, Ericson U, Santiuste C, Catalano A, Overvad K, Brustad M, Gunter MJ, Zavadil J, De Boevre M, Huybrechts I. Mycotoxin Exposure and Renal Cell Carcinoma Risk: An Association Study in the EPIC European Cohort. Nutrients 2022; 14:3581. [PMID: 36079840 PMCID: PMC9460795 DOI: 10.3390/nu14173581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Revised: 08/18/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mycotoxins have been suggested to contribute to a spectrum of adverse health effects in humans, including at low concentrations. The recognition of these food contaminants being carcinogenic, as co-occurring rather than as singularly present, has emerged from recent research. The aim of this study was to assess the potential associations of single and multiple mycotoxin exposures with renal cell carcinoma risk in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) cohort. METHODS Food questionnaire data from the EPIC cohort were matched to mycotoxin food occurrence data compiled by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) from European Member States to assess long-term dietary mycotoxin exposures, and to associate these with the risk of renal cell carcinoma (RCC, n = 911 cases) in 450,112 EPIC participants. Potential confounding factors were taken into account. Analyses were conducted using Cox's proportional hazards regression models to compute hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) with mycotoxin exposures expressed as µg/kg body weight/day. RESULTS Demographic characteristics differed between the RCC cases and non-cases for body mass index, age, alcohol intake at recruitment, and other dietary factors. In addition, the mycotoxin exposure distributions showed that a large proportion of the EPIC population was exposed to some of the main mycotoxins present in European foods such as deoxynivalenol (DON) and derivatives, fumonisins, Fusarium toxins, Alternaria toxins, and total mycotoxins. Nevertheless, no statistically significant associations were observed between the studied mycotoxins and mycotoxin groups, and the risk of RCC development. CONCLUSIONS These results show an absence of statistically significant associations between long-term dietary mycotoxin exposures and RCC risk. However, these results need to be validated in other cohorts and preferably using repeated dietary exposure measurements. In addition, more occurrence data of, e.g., citrinin and fumonisins in different food commodities and countries in the EFSA database are a prerequisite to establish a greater degree of certainty.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liesel Claeys
- Centre of Excellence in Mycotoxicology and Public Health, Department of Bioanalysis, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Cancer Research Institute Ghent (CRIG), 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Epigenomics and Mechanisms Branch, International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization, 150 Cours Albert Thomas, 69008 Lyon, France
- Nutrition and Metabolism Branch, International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization, 150 Cours Albert Thomas, 69008 Lyon, France
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Centre of Excellence in Mycotoxicology and Public Health, Department of Bioanalysis, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Cancer Research Institute Ghent (CRIG), 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein Campus, Johannesburg 2092, South Africa
| | - Ghislaine Scelo
- Genomic Epidemiology Branch, International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization, 150 Cours Albert Thomas, 69008 Lyon, France
| | - Carine Biessy
- Nutrition and Metabolism Branch, International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization, 150 Cours Albert Thomas, 69008 Lyon, France
| | - Corinne Casagrande
- Nutrition and Metabolism Branch, International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization, 150 Cours Albert Thomas, 69008 Lyon, France
| | - Genevieve Nicolas
- Nutrition and Metabolism Branch, International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization, 150 Cours Albert Thomas, 69008 Lyon, France
| | - Michael Korenjak
- Epigenomics and Mechanisms Branch, International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization, 150 Cours Albert Thomas, 69008 Lyon, France
| | - Beatrice Fervers
- Department Prevention Cancer Environment, Centre Léon Bérard, U1296 INSERM Radiation, Defense, Health and Environment, 28 Rue Laënnec, 69373 Lyon, France
| | - Alicia K. Heath
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, St Mary’s Campus, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
| | - Vittorio Krogh
- Epidemiology and Prevention Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto dei Tumori di Milano, 1 Via Venezian, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Leila Luján-Barroso
- Unit of Nutrition and Cancer, Cancer Epidemiology Research Program, Catalan Institute of Oncology—IDIBELL, Granvia de L-Hospitalet 199-203, 08908 L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
| | - Jesús Castilla
- Navarra Public Health Institute—IdiSNA, Leyre 15, 31003 Pamplona, Spain
- Centre for Biomedical Research in Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), C. Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Börje Ljungberg
- Department of Surgical and Perioperative Sciences, Urology and Andrology, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Miguel Rodriguez-Barranco
- Centre for Biomedical Research in Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), C. Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Andalusian School of Public Health (EASP), 4 Cta. del Observatorio, 18011 Granada, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria ibs. Granada, 15 Av. de Madrid, 18012 Granada, Spain
| | - Ulrika Ericson
- Department of Clinical Sciences in Malmö, Lund University, Jan Waldenströms gata 35, SE-214 28 Malmö, Sweden
| | - Carmen Santiuste
- Centre for Biomedical Research in Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), C. Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Department of Epidemiology, Murcia Regional Heath Council, IMIB-Arrixaca, 11 Ronda de Levante, 30008 Murcia, Spain
| | - Alberto Catalano
- Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Turin, Regione Gonzole 10, 10143 Orbassano, Italy
| | - Kim Overvad
- Department of Public Health, Aarhus University, Bartholins Allé 2, 8000 Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Magritt Brustad
- Department of Community Medicine, The Arctic University of Norway, Hansines veg 18, 9019 Tromsø, Norway
| | - Marc J. Gunter
- Nutrition and Metabolism Branch, International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization, 150 Cours Albert Thomas, 69008 Lyon, France
| | - Jiri Zavadil
- Epigenomics and Mechanisms Branch, International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization, 150 Cours Albert Thomas, 69008 Lyon, France
| | - Marthe De Boevre
- Centre of Excellence in Mycotoxicology and Public Health, Department of Bioanalysis, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Cancer Research Institute Ghent (CRIG), 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Inge Huybrechts
- Nutrition and Metabolism Branch, International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization, 150 Cours Albert Thomas, 69008 Lyon, France
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15
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Augustin Mihalache O, Dellafiora L, Dall'Asta C. A systematic review of natural toxins occurrence in plant commodities used for plant-based meat alternatives production. Food Res Int 2022; 158:111490. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Revised: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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16
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T-2 Toxin Induces Apoptotic Cell Death and Protective Autophagy in Mouse Microglia BV2 Cells. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:jof8080761. [PMID: 35893129 PMCID: PMC9330824 DOI: 10.3390/jof8080761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2022] [Revised: 06/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
T-2 toxin exposure could cause neurotoxicity; however, the precise molecular mechanisms remain unclear. In the present study, we investigated T-2 toxin-induced cytotoxicity and underlying molecular mechanisms using a mouse microglia BV2 cell line. The results show that T-2 toxin treatment-induced cytotoxicity of BV2 cells was dose- and time-dependent. Compared to the control, T-2 toxin treatment at 1.25–5 ng/mL significantly increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and triggered oxidative stress. T-2 toxin treatment also caused mitochondrial dysfunction in BV2 cells, which was evidenced by decreased mitochondrial transmembrane potential, upregulated expression of Bax protein, and decreased expression of Bcl-2 protein. Meanwhile, T-2 toxin treatment upregulated the expression of cleaved-caspase-3, cleaved-PARP-1 proteins, and downregulated the expression of HO-1 and nuclear Nrf2 proteins, finally inducing cell apoptosis in BV2 cells. N-acetylcysteine (NAC) supplementation significantly attenuated T-2 toxin-induced cytotoxicity. Moreover, T-2 toxin treatment activated autophagy and upregulated autophagy flux, and the inhibition of autophagy significantly promoted T-2 toxin-induced cell apoptosis. Taken together, our results reveal that T-2 toxin-induced cytotoxicity in BV2 cells involves the production of ROS, the activation of the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway, and the inhibition of the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. Our study offers new insight into the underlying molecular mechanisms in T-2 toxin-mediated neurotoxicity.
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17
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Hofgaard IS, Brodal G, Almvik M, Lillemo M, Russenes AL, Edwards SG, Aamot HU. Different Resistance to DON versus HT2 + T2 Producers in Nordic Oat Varieties. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14050313. [PMID: 35622560 PMCID: PMC9144082 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14050313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Over recent decades, the Norwegian cereal industry has had major practical and financial challenges associated with the occurrence of Fusarium head blight (FHB) pathogens and their associated mycotoxins in cereal grains. Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the most common Fusarium-mycotoxins in Norwegian oats, however T-2 toxin (T2) and HT-2 toxin (HT2) are also commonly detected. The aim of our study was to rank Nordic spring oat varieties and breeding lines by content of the most commonly occurring Fusarium mycotoxins (DON and HT2 + T2) as well as by the DNA content of their respective producers. We analyzed the content of mycotoxins and DNA of seven fungal species belonging to the FHB disease complex in grains of Nordic oat varieties and breeding lines harvested from oat field trials located in the main cereal cultivating district in South-East Norway in the years 2011–2020. Oat grains harvested from varieties with a high FHB resistance contained on average half the levels of mycotoxins compared with the most susceptible varieties, which implies that choice of variety may indeed impact on mycotoxin risk. The ranking of oat varieties according to HT2 + T2 levels corresponded with the ranking according to the DNA levels of Fusarium langsethiae, but differed from the ranking according to DON and Fusarium graminearum DNA. Separate tests are therefore necessary to determine the resistance towards HT2 + T2 and DON producers in oats. This creates practical challenges for the screening of FHB resistance in oats as today’s screening focuses on resistance to F. graminearum and DON. We identified oat varieties with generally low levels of both mycotoxins and FHB pathogens which should be preferred to mitigate mycotoxin risk in Norwegian oats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingerd Skow Hofgaard
- Division of Biotechnology and Plant Health, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), 1431 Ås, Norway; (G.B.); (M.A.); (H.U.A.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Guro Brodal
- Division of Biotechnology and Plant Health, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), 1431 Ås, Norway; (G.B.); (M.A.); (H.U.A.)
| | - Marit Almvik
- Division of Biotechnology and Plant Health, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), 1431 Ås, Norway; (G.B.); (M.A.); (H.U.A.)
| | - Morten Lillemo
- Department of Plant Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), 1432 Ås, Norway;
| | - Aina Lundon Russenes
- Division of Food Production and Society, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), 1431 Ås, Norway;
| | - Simon Graham Edwards
- Centre for Integrated Pest Management, Harper Adams University, Newport, Shropshire TF 10 8NB, UK;
| | - Heidi Udnes Aamot
- Division of Biotechnology and Plant Health, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), 1431 Ås, Norway; (G.B.); (M.A.); (H.U.A.)
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18
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Prusova N, Dzuman Z, Jelinek L, Karabin M, Hajslova J, Rychlik M, Stranska M. Free and conjugated Alternaria and Fusarium mycotoxins during Pilsner malt production and double-mash brewing. Food Chem 2022; 369:130926. [PMID: 34474284 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.130926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Revised: 08/03/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Malting and brewing have previously been demonstrated to be risky procedures in terms of mycotoxins contamination. The goal of the study was to describe the fate of less investigated Fusarium and Alternaria mycotoxins, together with their conjugates, during these processes. The Pilsner malt producing process, together with double-mash brewing, were performed in a pilot-scale malting and brewery plants to simulate production of lager - the most popular type of central European beer. In addition, changes in temperature during barley germination were investigated to assess the influence of this critical step. QuEChERS-like extraction followed by UHPLC-HRMS/MS were utilized to quantify the mass balance of 13 mycotoxins and four of their conjugates. The results confirmed germination as the most determining malting step, followed by mashing of malt during brewing. Occurrence of type A trichothecenes, Alternaria mycotoxins and their conjugates in the final beer product indicates the need to take mitigation measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nela Prusova
- University of Chemistry and Technology, Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Zbynek Dzuman
- University of Chemistry and Technology, Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Lukas Jelinek
- University of Chemistry and Technology, Department of Biotechnology, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Marcel Karabin
- University of Chemistry and Technology, Department of Biotechnology, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Hajslova
- University of Chemistry and Technology, Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Michael Rychlik
- Technical University of Munich, Analytical Food Chemistry, Freising, Germany
| | - Milena Stranska
- University of Chemistry and Technology, Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, Prague, Czech Republic.
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19
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Human Biomonitoring of T-2 Toxin, T-2 Toxin-3-Glucoside and Their Metabolites in Urine through High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13120869. [PMID: 34941707 PMCID: PMC8703800 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13120869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Revised: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The metabolic profile of T-2 toxin (T-2) and its modified form T-2-3-glucoside (T-2-3-Glc) remain unexplored in human samples. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the presence of T-2, T-2-3-Glc and their respective major metabolites in human urine samples (n = 300) collected in South Italy through an ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) coupled to Q-Orbitrap-HRMS methodology. T-2 was quantified in 21% of samples at a mean concentration of 1.34 ng/mg Crea (range: 0.22–6.54 ng/mg Crea). Almost all the major T-2 metabolites previously characterized in vitro were tentatively found, remarking the occurrence of 3′-OH-T-2 (99.7%), T-2 triol (56%) and HT-2 (30%). Regarding T-2-3-Glc, a low prevalence of the parent mycotoxin (1%) and its metabolites were observed, with HT-2-3-Glc (17%) being the most prevalent compound, although hydroxylated products were also detected. Attending to the large number of testing positive for T-2 or its metabolites, this study found a frequent exposure in Italian population.
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20
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Janik E, Niemcewicz M, Podogrocki M, Ceremuga M, Stela M, Bijak M. T-2 Toxin-The Most Toxic Trichothecene Mycotoxin: Metabolism, Toxicity, and Decontamination Strategies. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26226868. [PMID: 34833960 PMCID: PMC8618548 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26226868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2021] [Revised: 11/07/2021] [Accepted: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Among trichothecenes, T-2 toxin is the most toxic fungal secondary metabolite produced by different Fusarium species. Moreover, T-2 is the most common cause of poisoning that results from the consumption of contaminated cereal-based food and feed reported among humans and animals. The food and feed most contaminated with T-2 toxin is made from wheat, barley, rye, oats, and maize. After exposition or ingestion, T-2 is immediately absorbed from the alimentary tract or through the respiratory mucosal membranes and transported to the liver as a primary organ responsible for toxin's metabolism. Depending on the age, way of exposure, and dosage, intoxication manifests by vomiting, feed refusal, stomach necrosis, and skin irritation, which is rarely observed in case of mycotoxins intoxication. In order to eliminate T-2 toxin, various decontamination techniques have been found to mitigate the concentration of T-2 toxin in agricultural commodities. However, it is believed that 100% degradation of this toxin could be not possible. In this review, T-2 toxin toxicity, metabolism, and decontamination strategies are presented and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edyta Janik
- Biohazard Prevention Centre, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, Pomorska 141/143, 90-236 Lodz, Poland; (E.J.); (M.N.); (M.P.)
| | - Marcin Niemcewicz
- Biohazard Prevention Centre, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, Pomorska 141/143, 90-236 Lodz, Poland; (E.J.); (M.N.); (M.P.)
| | - Marcin Podogrocki
- Biohazard Prevention Centre, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, Pomorska 141/143, 90-236 Lodz, Poland; (E.J.); (M.N.); (M.P.)
| | - Michal Ceremuga
- Military Institute of Armament Technology, Prymasa Stefana Wyszyńskiego 7, 05-220 Zielonka, Poland;
| | - Maksymilian Stela
- CBRN Reconnaissance and Decontamination Department, Military Institute of Chemistry and Radiometry, Antoniego Chrusciela "Montera" 105, 00-910 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Michal Bijak
- Biohazard Prevention Centre, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, Pomorska 141/143, 90-236 Lodz, Poland; (E.J.); (M.N.); (M.P.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel./Fax: +48-42-635-43-36
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21
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Lu Q, Guo P, Wang X, Ares I, Lopez-Torres B, Martínez-Larrañaga MR, Li T, Zhang Y, Wang X, Anadón A, Martínez MA. MS4A3-HSP27 target pathway reveals potential for haematopoietic disorder treatment in alimentary toxic aleukia. Cell Biol Toxicol 2021; 39:201-216. [PMID: 34581912 DOI: 10.1007/s10565-021-09639-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Alimentary toxic aleukia (ATA) is correlated with consuming grains contaminated by Fusarium species, particularly T-2 toxin, which causes serious hurt to human and animal health, chiefly in disorders of the haematopoietic system. However, the mechanism of haematopoietic dysfunction induced by T-2 toxin and the possible target pathway for the treatment of T-2 toxin-induced haematopoietic disorder of ATA remains unclear. In this study, genomes and proteomics were used for the first time to investigate the key differential genes and proteins that inhibit erythroid differentiation of K562 cells caused by T-2 toxin, and it was found that heat shock protein 27 (HSP27) and membrane-spanning 4-domains, subfamily A, member 3 (MS4A3) may play an important role in erythroid differentiation. Meanwhile, MS4A3 interference can inhibit the occurrence of erythroid differentiation of K562 cells and promote the phosphorylation of HSP27. Moreover, the binding of HSP27 to MS4A3 in natural state can activate the phosphorylation site of HSP27 (Ser-83), while T-2 toxin can abolish the activation of phosphorylation site by inhibiting the expression of MS4A3. These findings for the first time demonstrated that the MS4A3-HSP27 pathway may function an efficient therapeutic target pathway for treating T-2 toxin elicited haematopoietic disorders of ATA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qirong Lu
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China
| | - Pu Guo
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China
| | - Xiaohui Wang
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China
| | - Irma Ares
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Bernardo Lopez-Torres
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - María-Rosa Martínez-Larrañaga
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Tingting Li
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China
| | - Yuanyuan Zhang
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China
| | - Xu Wang
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China. .,MOA Laboratory for Risk Assessment of Quality and Safety of Livestock and Poultry Products, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China.
| | - Arturo Anadón
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
| | - María-Aránzazu Martínez
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain
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Soares Mateus AR, Barros S, Pena A, Sanches Silva A. Mycotoxins in Pistachios ( Pistacia vera L.): Methods for Determination, Occurrence, Decontamination. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:682. [PMID: 34678975 PMCID: PMC8538126 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13100682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The consumption of pistachios (Pistacia vera L.) has been increasing, given their important benefit to human health. In addition to being an excellent nutritional source, they have been associated with chemical hazards, such as mycotoxins, resulting in fungal contamination and its secondary metabolism. Aflatoxins (AFs) are the most common mycotoxins in pistachio and the most toxic to humans, with hepatotoxic effects. More mycotoxins such as ochratoxin A (OTA), fumonisins (FBs), zearalenone (ZEA) and trichothecenes (T2, HT2 and DON) and emerging mycotoxins have been involved in nuts. Because of the low levels of concentration and the complexity of the matrix, the determination techniques must be very sensitive. The present paper carries out an extensive review of the state of the art of the determination of mycotoxins in pistachios, concerning the trends in analytical methodologies for their determination and the levels detected as a result of its contamination. Screening methods based on immunoassays are useful due to their simplicity and rapid response. Liquid chromatography (LC) is the gold standard with new improvements to enhance accuracy, precision and sensitivity and a lower detection limit. The reduction of Aspergillus' and aflatoxins' contamination is important to minimize the public health risks. While prevention, mostly in pre-harvest, is the most effective and preferable measure to avoid mycotoxin contamination, there is an increased number of decontamination processes which will also be addressed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Rita Soares Mateus
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo III, Azinhaga de Stª Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; (A.R.S.M.); (A.S.S.)
- National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research (INIAV), I.P., Rua dos Lagidos, Lugar da Madalena, 4485-655 Vila do Conde, Portugal;
| | - Sílvia Barros
- National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research (INIAV), I.P., Rua dos Lagidos, Lugar da Madalena, 4485-655 Vila do Conde, Portugal;
| | - Angelina Pena
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo III, Azinhaga de Stª Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; (A.R.S.M.); (A.S.S.)
- LAQV, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo III, Azinhaga de Stª Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ana Sanches Silva
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo III, Azinhaga de Stª Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; (A.R.S.M.); (A.S.S.)
- National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research (INIAV), I.P., Rua dos Lagidos, Lugar da Madalena, 4485-655 Vila do Conde, Portugal;
- Center for Study in Animal Science (CECA), ICETA, University of Oporto, 55142 Oporto, Portugal
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Meyer JC, Hennies I, Wessels D, Schwarz K. Survey of mycotoxins in milling oats dedicated for food purposes between 2013 and 2019 by LC-MS/MS. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2021; 38:1934-1947. [PMID: 34330195 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2021.1950931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Although the common oat (Avena sativa L.) is well known for its nutritional benefits, it carries the risk of contamination with mycotoxins due to its susceptibility to the growth of various fungi. The procurement of milling oats for food could become more difficult in the coming harvest years due to limited availability, specific quality requirements and the avoidance of mycotoxin contamination. In light of ongoing discussions in the European Commission on regulatory limits for certain mycotoxins including their modified forms, the purpose of this study was to improve the database on their occurrence in milling oats. In particular, we provide data on the predominantly occurring trichothecenes such as deoxynivalenol and its acetylated and modified derivatives (e.g. 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol, 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol and deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside) as well as on T-2 and HT-2 toxins. Additionally, the following mycotoxins were analysed: zearalenone, nivalenol, diacetoxyscirpenol, fusarenon-X, ochratoxin A, sterigmatocystin and aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2. Oat samples, (n = 281) pre-selected for their physical properties and DON-content to be less than 1750 µg/kg from 11 European provenances, were analysed for 16 different mycotoxins by LC-MS/MS. Samples were collected from the years of harvest 2013 to 2019. High incidence rates above the limit of quantification of either 5 µg/kg for T-2 and HT-2 toxins or 10 µg/kg for deoxynivalenol were found (98.1, 94.7 and 91.4%, respectively). The mean concentration of the sum of T-2 and HT-2 toxins was 149 µg/kg. The highest level was found in an Irish sample containing 1290 µg/kg for the sum of T-2 and HT-2 toxins. The mean deoxynivalenol concentration was 289 µg/kg, while the highest level was 1414 µg/kg in a Swedish sample. Besides nivalenol other mycotoxins were only present in trace concentrations or not detected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens Chr Meyer
- H. & J. Brüggen KG, Lübeck, Germany.,Division of Food Technology, Institute of Human Nutrition and Food Science, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
| | | | | | - Karin Schwarz
- Division of Food Technology, Institute of Human Nutrition and Food Science, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
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24
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Pustjens A, Castenmiller J, te Biesebeek J, de Rijk T, van Dam R, Boon P. Dietary exposure to mycotoxins of 1- and 2-year-old children from a Dutch Total Diet Study. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2021. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2020.2676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
In 2017, a Total Diet Study was conducted in the Netherlands in which mycotoxins were analysed in foods and beverages consumed by 1- and 2-year-old children. These mycotoxins were aflatoxins, Alternaria toxins, citrinin, ergot alkaloids, fumonisins, ochratoxin A, patulin, sterigmatocystin, trichothecenes, and zearalenone. Long-term exposure was calculated by combining concentrations in foods and beverages with consumed amounts of these products. Analysed foods and beverages with a concentration below the detection limit that could contain the mycotoxin, were assigned a concentration equal to half this limit value. To assess if the exposure could result in a possible health risk, the high long-term exposure (95th percentile) was compared with a health-based guidance value (HBGV) or a margin of exposure (MOE) was calculated. Exposure to aflatoxins, Alternaria toxins, ochratoxin A and T-2/HT-2 sum may pose a health concern. Foods that contributed most to the exposure of these mycotoxins were bread, biscuits, breakfast cereals, chocolates, dried fruit, follow-on formula and fruit juices.
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Affiliation(s)
- A.M. Pustjens
- Wageningen Food Safety Research (WFSR), Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - J.J.M. Castenmiller
- Netherlands Food and Consumer Product Safety Authority (NVWA), P.O. Box 43006, 3540 AA Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - J.D. te Biesebeek
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), P.O. Box 1, 3729 Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - T.C. de Rijk
- Wageningen Food Safety Research (WFSR), Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - R.C.J. van Dam
- Wageningen Food Safety Research (WFSR), Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - P.E. Boon
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), P.O. Box 1, 3729 Bilthoven, the Netherlands
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Cytoprotective Effects of Fish Protein Hydrolysates against H 2O 2-Induced Oxidative Stress and Mycotoxins in Caco-2/TC7 Cells. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10060975. [PMID: 34207334 PMCID: PMC8234493 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10060975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Revised: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Many studies report the potent antioxidant capacity for fish protein hydrolysates, including radical scavenging activity and inhibition ability on lipid peroxidation (LPO). In this study, the in vitro cytotoxicity of protein hydrolysates from different salmon, mackerel, and herring side streams fractions was evaluated in the concentration range from 1 to 1:32 dilution, using cloned human colon adenocarcinoma cells TC7 (Caco-2/TC7) by MTT and PT assays. The protein hydrolysates' antioxidant capacity and oxidative stress effects were evaluated by LPO and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, respectively. The antioxidant capacity for pure and bioavailable hydrolysate fraction was also evaluated and compared. Additionally, mycotoxin levels were determined in the fish protein hydrolysates, and their cytoprotective effect against T-2 toxin was evaluated. Both hydrolysates and their bioavailable fraction induced similar cell viability rates. The highest cytoprotective effect was obtained for the salmon viscera protein hydrolysate (HSV), which increased the cell viability by 51.2%. ROS accumulation induced by H2O2 and LPO was suppressed by all pure hydrolysates. The cytoprotective effect of hydrolysates was observed against T-2. Moreover, the different fish fraction protein hydrolysates contain variable nutrients and unique bioactive peptide composition showing variable bioactivity, which could be a useful tool in developing dietary supplements with different target functional properties.
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26
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Mutiga SK, Mutuku JM, Koskei V, Gitau JK, Ng’ang’a F, Musyoka J, Chemining’wa GN, Murori R. Multiple Mycotoxins in Kenyan Rice. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13030203. [PMID: 33799626 PMCID: PMC7998506 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13030203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 02/20/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple mycotoxins were tested in milled rice samples (n = 200) from traders at different milling points within the Mwea Irrigation Scheme in Kenya. Traders provided the names of the cultivar, village where paddy was cultivated, sampling locality, miller, and month of paddy harvest between 2018 and 2019. Aflatoxin, citrinin, fumonisin, ochratoxin A, diacetoxyscirpenol, T2, HT2, and sterigmatocystin were analyzed using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC–MS/MS). Deoxynivalenol was tested using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Mycotoxins occurred in ranges and frequencies in the following order: sterigmatocystin (0–7 ppb; 74.5%), aflatoxin (0–993 ppb; 55.5%), citrinin (0–9 ppb; 55.5%), ochratoxin A (0–110 ppb; 30%), fumonisin (0–76 ppb; 26%), diacetoxyscirpenol (0–24 ppb; 20.5%), and combined HT2 + T2 (0–62 ppb; 14.5%), and deoxynivalenol was detected in only one sample at 510 ppb. Overall, low amounts of toxins were observed in rice with a low frequency of samples above the regulatory limits for aflatoxin, 13.5%; ochratoxin A, 6%; and HT2 + T2, 0.5%. The maximum co-contamination was for 3.5% samples with six toxins in different combinations. The rice cultivar, paddy environment, time of harvest, and millers influenced the occurrence of different mycotoxins. There is a need to establish integrated approaches for the mitigation of mycotoxin accumulation in the Kenyan rice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel K. Mutiga
- Biosciences Eastern and Central Africa, International Livestock Research Institute (BecA-ILRI) Hub, P.O. BOX 30709, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya; (J.M.M.); (F.N.); (J.M.)
- Department of Entomology & Plant Pathology, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA
- Correspondence: (S.K.M.); (R.M.)
| | - J. Musembi Mutuku
- Biosciences Eastern and Central Africa, International Livestock Research Institute (BecA-ILRI) Hub, P.O. BOX 30709, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya; (J.M.M.); (F.N.); (J.M.)
| | - Vincent Koskei
- National Irrigation Authority (NIA), P.O. Box 210, 10303 Wang’uru, Kenya;
| | - James Kamau Gitau
- Department of Plant Science and Crop Protection, University of Nairobi, P.O. BOX 29053, 00625 Nairobi, Kenya; (J.K.G.); (G.N.C.)
| | - Fredrick Ng’ang’a
- Biosciences Eastern and Central Africa, International Livestock Research Institute (BecA-ILRI) Hub, P.O. BOX 30709, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya; (J.M.M.); (F.N.); (J.M.)
| | - Joyce Musyoka
- Biosciences Eastern and Central Africa, International Livestock Research Institute (BecA-ILRI) Hub, P.O. BOX 30709, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya; (J.M.M.); (F.N.); (J.M.)
| | - George N. Chemining’wa
- Department of Plant Science and Crop Protection, University of Nairobi, P.O. BOX 29053, 00625 Nairobi, Kenya; (J.K.G.); (G.N.C.)
| | - Rosemary Murori
- International Rice Research Institute, Eastern and Southern African Region Office, P.O. BOX 30709, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
- Correspondence: (S.K.M.); (R.M.)
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Janssen EM, Mourits MCM, Oude Lansink AGJM, van der Fels-Klerx HJ. Incentives to Stimulate European Wheat Farmers to Adapt Their Fusarium Species Mycotoxin Management. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:144. [PMID: 33672902 PMCID: PMC7918326 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Fusarium species infection in wheat can lead to Fusarium Head Blight (FHB) and contamination with mycotoxins. To fully exploit more recent insights into FHB and mycotoxin management, farmers might need to adapt their agronomic management, which can be stimulated through incentives. This study aimed to identify incentives to stimulate European farmers to adapt their agronomic management to reduce FHB and related mycotoxins in wheat. A questionnaire was distributed among 224 wheat farmers from Italy, the Netherlands, Serbia, and the United Kingdom. Using the respondents' data, Bayesian Network modelling was applied to estimate the probability that farmers would adapt their current agronomic management under eight different incentives given the conditions set by their farm and farmer characteristics. Results show that most farmers would adapt their current agronomic management under the incentives "paid extra when wheat contains low levels of mycotoxins" and "wheat is tested for the presence of mycotoxins for free". The most effective incentive depended on farm and farmer characteristics, such as country, crop type, size of arable land, soil type, education, and mycotoxin knowledge. Insights into the farmer characteristics related to incentives can help stakeholders in the wheat supply chain, such as farmer cooperatives and the government, to design tailor-made incentive plans.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - H. J. van der Fels-Klerx
- Business Economics Group, Wageningen University & Research, Hollandseweg 1, 6706 KN, Wageningen, The Netherlands; (E.M.J.); (M.C.M.M.); (A.G.J.M.O.L.)
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28
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Polak-Śliwińska M, Paszczyk B. Trichothecenes in Food and Feed, Relevance to Human and Animal Health and Methods of Detection: A Systematic Review. Molecules 2021; 26:454. [PMID: 33467103 PMCID: PMC7830705 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26020454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Trichothecene mycotoxins are sesquiterpenoid compounds primarily produced by fungi in taxonomical genera such as Fusarium, Myrothecium, Stachybotrys, Trichothecium, and others, under specific climatic conditions on a worldwide basis. Fusarium mold is a major plant pathogen and produces a number of trichothecene mycotoxins including deoxynivalenol (or vomitoxin), nivalenol, diacetoxyscirpenol, and T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin. Monogastrics are sensitive to vomitoxin, while poultry and ruminants appear to be less sensitive to some trichothecenes through microbial metabolism of trichothecenes in the gastrointestinal tract. Trichothecene mycotoxins occur worldwide however both total concentrations and the particular mix of toxins present vary with environmental conditions. Proper agricultural practices such as avoiding late harvests, removing overwintered stubble from fields, and avoiding a corn/wheat rotation that favors Fusarium growth in residue can reduce trichothecene contamination of grains. Due to the vague nature of toxic effects attributed to low concentrations of trichothecenes, a solid link between low level exposure and a specific trichothecene is difficult to establish. Multiple factors, such as nutrition, management, and environmental conditions impact animal health and need to be evaluated with the knowledge of the mycotoxin and concentrations known to cause adverse health effects. Future research evaluating the impact of low-level exposure on livestock may clarify the potential impact on immunity. Trichothecenes are rapidly excreted from animals, and residues in edible tissues, milk, or eggs are likely negligible. In chronic exposures to trichothecenes, once the contaminated feed is removed and exposure stopped, animals generally have an excellent prognosis for recovery. This review shows the occurrence of trichothecenes in food and feed in 2011-2020 and their toxic effects and provides a summary of the discussions on the potential public health concerns specifically related to trichothecenes residues in foods associated with the exposure of farm animals to mycotoxin-contaminated feeds and impact to human health. Moreover, the article discusses the methods of their detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Polak-Śliwińska
- Faculty of Food Sciences, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Plac Cieszyński 1, 10-726 Olsztyn, Poland;
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29
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Kiš M, Vulić A, Kudumija N, Šarkanj B, Jaki Tkalec V, Aladić K, Škrivanko M, Furmeg S, Pleadin J. A Two-Year Occurrence of Fusarium T-2 and HT-2 Toxin in Croatian Cereals Relative of the Regional Weather. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13010039. [PMID: 33430378 PMCID: PMC7827321 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13010039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Revised: 12/27/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
To investigate into the T-2 and HT-2 toxin occurrence, 240 samples of unprocessed cereals (maize, wheat, barley, and oats) were sampled from different fields located in three Croatian regions during 2017-2018. In all samples, sum concentrations of T-2/HT-2 toxin were determined using the ELISA method, while the LC-MS/MS was used as a confirmatory method for both mycotoxins in positive samples (>LOD) and the establishment of T-2 over HT-2 toxin ratios. The results showed oats to be the most contaminated cereal, with T-2/HT-2 toxins detected in 70.0% of samples, followed by barley (40.9%), maize (26.8%) and wheat (19.2%), with the mean T-2/HT-2 ratio ranging from 1:2.7 in maize to 1:4.4 in oats. Sum T-2/HT-2 concentrations in two maize samples were higher than the indicative level recommended by the European Commission, necessitating subsequent investigations into the conditions under which these poorly investigated mycotoxins are produced. Statistically significantly (p < 0.05) higher concentrations of T-2/HT-2 toxin were determined in oats throughout study regions as compared to those found in wheat, but not maize and barley, while the concentrations of these mycotoxins were related to the regional weather in Croatia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maja Kiš
- Regional Veterinary Department Križevci, Croatian Veterinary Institute, Zakmandijeva 10, 48260 Križevci, Croatia; (M.K.); (V.J.T.); (S.F.)
| | - Ana Vulić
- Laboratory for Analytical Chemistry, Croatian Veterinary Institute, Savska Cesta 143, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (A.V.); (N.K.)
| | - Nina Kudumija
- Laboratory for Analytical Chemistry, Croatian Veterinary Institute, Savska Cesta 143, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (A.V.); (N.K.)
| | - Bojan Šarkanj
- Department of Food Technology, University North, Trg dr. Žarka Dolinara 1, 43000 Koprivnica, Croatia;
| | - Vesna Jaki Tkalec
- Regional Veterinary Department Križevci, Croatian Veterinary Institute, Zakmandijeva 10, 48260 Križevci, Croatia; (M.K.); (V.J.T.); (S.F.)
| | - Krunoslav Aladić
- Regional Veterinary Department Vinkovci, Croatian Veterinary Institute, Ul. Josipa Kozarca 24, 32100 Vinkovci, Croatia; (K.A.); (M.Š.)
| | - Mario Škrivanko
- Regional Veterinary Department Vinkovci, Croatian Veterinary Institute, Ul. Josipa Kozarca 24, 32100 Vinkovci, Croatia; (K.A.); (M.Š.)
| | - Sanja Furmeg
- Regional Veterinary Department Križevci, Croatian Veterinary Institute, Zakmandijeva 10, 48260 Križevci, Croatia; (M.K.); (V.J.T.); (S.F.)
| | - Jelka Pleadin
- Laboratory for Analytical Chemistry, Croatian Veterinary Institute, Savska Cesta 143, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (A.V.); (N.K.)
- Correspondence:
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Determination of Zearalenone and Trichothecenes, Including Deoxynivalenol and Its Acetylated Derivatives, Nivalenol, T-2 and HT-2 Toxins, in Wheat and Wheat Products by LC-MS/MS: A Collaborative Study. Toxins (Basel) 2020. [PMID: 33322050 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12120786,pmid33322050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/01/2023] Open
Abstract
An analytical method for the simultaneous determination of trichothecenes-namely, nivalenol (NIV), deoxynivalenol (DON) and its acetylated derivatives (3- and 15-acetyl-DON), T-2 and HT-2 toxins-and zearalenone (ZEN) in wheat, wheat flour, and wheat crackers was validated through a collaborative study involving 15 participants from 10 countries. The validation study, performed within the M/520 standardization mandate of the European Commission, was carried out according to the IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) International Harmonized Protocol. The method was based on mycotoxin extraction from the homogenized sample material with a mixture of acetonitrile-water followed by purification and concentration on a solid phase extraction column. High-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry was used for mycotoxin detection, using isotopically labelled mycotoxins as internal standards. The tested contamination ranges were from 27.7 to 378 μg/kg for NIV, from 234 to 2420 μg/kg for DON, from 18.5 to 137 μg/kg for 3-acetyl-DON, from 11.4 to 142 μg/kg for 15-acetyl-DON, from 2.1 to 37.6 μg/kg for T-2 toxin, from 6.6 to 134 μg/kg for HT-2 toxin, and from 31.6 to 230 μg/kg for ZEN. Recoveries were in the range 71-97% with the lowest values for NIV, the most polar mycotoxin. The relative standard deviation for repeatability (RSDr) was in the range of 2.2-34%, while the relative standard deviation for reproducibility (RSDR) was between 6.4% and 45%. The HorRat values ranged from 0.4 to 2.0. The results of the collaborative study showed that the candidate method is fit for the purpose of enforcing the legislative limits of the major Fusarium toxins in wheat and wheat-based products.
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Determination of Zearalenone and Trichothecenes, Including Deoxynivalenol and Its Acetylated Derivatives, Nivalenol, T-2 and HT-2 Toxins, in Wheat and Wheat Products by LC-MS/MS: A Collaborative Study. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12120786. [PMID: 33322050 PMCID: PMC7763284 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12120786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
An analytical method for the simultaneous determination of trichothecenes-namely, nivalenol (NIV), deoxynivalenol (DON) and its acetylated derivatives (3- and 15-acetyl-DON), T-2 and HT-2 toxins-and zearalenone (ZEN) in wheat, wheat flour, and wheat crackers was validated through a collaborative study involving 15 participants from 10 countries. The validation study, performed within the M/520 standardization mandate of the European Commission, was carried out according to the IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) International Harmonized Protocol. The method was based on mycotoxin extraction from the homogenized sample material with a mixture of acetonitrile-water followed by purification and concentration on a solid phase extraction column. High-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry was used for mycotoxin detection, using isotopically labelled mycotoxins as internal standards. The tested contamination ranges were from 27.7 to 378 μg/kg for NIV, from 234 to 2420 μg/kg for DON, from 18.5 to 137 μg/kg for 3-acetyl-DON, from 11.4 to 142 μg/kg for 15-acetyl-DON, from 2.1 to 37.6 μg/kg for T-2 toxin, from 6.6 to 134 μg/kg for HT-2 toxin, and from 31.6 to 230 μg/kg for ZEN. Recoveries were in the range 71-97% with the lowest values for NIV, the most polar mycotoxin. The relative standard deviation for repeatability (RSDr) was in the range of 2.2-34%, while the relative standard deviation for reproducibility (RSDR) was between 6.4% and 45%. The HorRat values ranged from 0.4 to 2.0. The results of the collaborative study showed that the candidate method is fit for the purpose of enforcing the legislative limits of the major Fusarium toxins in wheat and wheat-based products.
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Pickova D, Ostry V, Toman J, Malir F. Presence of Mycotoxins in Milk Thistle ( Silybum marianum) Food Supplements: A Review. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E782. [PMID: 33302488 PMCID: PMC7763672 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12120782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The consumption of herbal-based supplements, which are believed to have beneficial effects on human health with no side effects, has become popular around the world and this trend is still increasing. Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn, commonly known as milk thistle (MT), is the most commonly studied herb associated with the treatment of liver diseases. The hepatoprotective effects of active substances in silymarin, with silybin being the main compound, have been demonstrated in many studies. However, MT can be affected by toxigenic micro-fungi and contaminated by mycotoxins with adverse effects. The beneficial effect of silymarin can thus be reduced or totally antagonized by mycotoxins. MT has proven to be affected by micro-fungi of the Fusarium and Alternaria genera, in particular, and their mycotoxins. Alternariol-methyl-ether (AME), alternariol (AOH), beauvericin (BEA), deoxynivalenol (DON), enniatin A (ENNA), enniatin A1 (ENNA1), enniatin B (ENNB), enniatin B1 (ENNB1), HT-2 toxin (HT-2), T-2 toxin (T-2), tentoxin (TEN), and zearalenone (ZEA) seem to be most significant in MT-based dietary supplements. This review focuses on summarizing cases of mycotoxins in MT to emphasize the need for strict monitoring and regulation, as mycotoxins in relation with MT-based dietary supplements are not covered by European Union legislation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darina Pickova
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Rokitanskeho 62, CZ-50003 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic; (V.O.); (J.T.); (F.M.)
| | - Vladimir Ostry
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Rokitanskeho 62, CZ-50003 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic; (V.O.); (J.T.); (F.M.)
- Center for Health, National Institute of Public Health in Prague, Nutrition and Food in Brno, Palackeho 3a, CZ-61242 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jakub Toman
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Rokitanskeho 62, CZ-50003 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic; (V.O.); (J.T.); (F.M.)
| | - Frantisek Malir
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Rokitanskeho 62, CZ-50003 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic; (V.O.); (J.T.); (F.M.)
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Distribution of T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin during experimental feeding of yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor). Mycotoxin Res 2020; 37:11-21. [PMID: 32990831 PMCID: PMC7819947 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-020-00411-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Revised: 09/15/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Within the European Union (EU), edible insects need to be approved as "Novel Food" according to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 and must comply with the requirements of European food law with regard to microbiological and chemical food safety. Substrates used for feeding insects are susceptible to the growth of Fusarium spp. and consequently to contamination with trichothecene mycotoxins. Therefore, the current study aimed to investigate the influence of T-2 and HT-2 toxins on the larval life cycle of yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor (L.)) and to study the transfer of T-2, HT-2, T-2 triol and T-2 tetraol in the larvae. In a 4-week feeding study, T. molitor larvae were kept either on naturally (oat flakes moulded with Fusarium sporotrichioides) or artificially contaminated oat flakes, each at two levels (approximately 100 and 250 μg/kg total T-2 and HT-2). Weight gain and survival rates were monitored, and mycotoxins in the feeding substrates, larvae and residues were determined using LC-MS/MS. Larval development varied between the diets and was 44% higher for larvae fed artificially contaminated diets. However, the artificially contaminated diets had a 16% lower survival rate. No trichothecenes were detected in the surviving larvae after harvest, but T-2 and HT-2 were found both in the dead larvae and in the residues of naturally and artificially contaminated diets.
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Janssen EM, Mourits MCM, van der Fels-Klerx HJ, Lansink AGJMO. Factors underlying Dutch farmers' intentions to adapt their agronomic management to reduce Fusarium species infection in wheat. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0237460. [PMID: 32911506 PMCID: PMC7482836 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0237460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Infection of wheat by Fusarium species can lead to Fusarium Head Blight (FHB) and mycotoxin contamination, thereby reducing food quality and food safety, and leading to economic losses. Agronomic management through the implementation of various pre-harvest measures can reduce the probability of Fusarium spp. infection in the wheat field. To design interventions that could stimulate wheat farmers to (further) improve their agronomic management to reduce FHB, it is key to understand farmers’ behaviour towards adapting their management. The aim of this paper was to understand the intention, underlying behavioural constructs, and beliefs of Dutch wheat farmers to adapt their agronomic management to reduce FHB and mycotoxin contamination in wheat, applying the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB). Data were collected from 100 Dutch wheat farmers via a questionnaire. The standard TPB analysis was extended with an assessment of the robustness of the belief results to account for the statistical validity of the analysis on TPB beliefs (i.e. to address the so-called expectancy-value muddle). Forty-six percent of the farmers had a positive intention to change their management in the next 5 years. The two behavioural constructs significantly related to this intention were attitude and social norm, whereas association with the perceived behavioural control construct was insignificant indicating that farmers did not perceive any barriers to change their behaviour. Relevant attitudinal beliefs indicated specific attributes of wheat, namely yield, quality and safety (lower mycotoxin contamination). This indicates that strengthening these beliefs—by demonstrating that a change in management will result in a higher yield and quality and lower mycotoxin levels—will result in a stronger attitude and, subsequently, a higher intention to change management. Interventions to strengthen these beliefs should preferably go by the most important referents for social norms, which were the buyers and the farmer cooperatives in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- E. M. Janssen
- Business Economics Group, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
- * E-mail: (EMJ); (MCMM)
| | - M. C. M. Mourits
- Business Economics Group, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
- * E-mail: (EMJ); (MCMM)
| | - H. J. van der Fels-Klerx
- Business Economics Group, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
- Wageningen Food Safety Research (WFSR), Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
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Preparation of multitarget Fusarium toxin (zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, T-2, and HT-2) immunoaffinity columns using poly(glycidyl methacrylate–divinylbenzene) as a matrix. Polym Bull (Berl) 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s00289-019-02991-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Brodal G, Aamot HU, Almvik M, Hofgaard IS. Removal of Small Kernels Reduces the Content of Fusarium Mycotoxins in Oat Grain. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E346. [PMID: 32456124 PMCID: PMC7291109 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12050346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cereal grain contaminated by Fusarium mycotoxins is undesirable in food and feed because of the harmful health effects of the mycotoxins in humans and animals. Reduction of mycotoxin content in grain by cleaning and size sorting has mainly been studied in wheat. We investigated whether the removal of small kernels by size sorting could be a method to reduce the content of mycotoxins in oat grain. Samples from 24 Norwegian mycotoxin-contaminated grain lots (14 from 2015 and 10 from 2018) were sorted by a laboratory sieve (sieve size 2.2 mm) into large and small kernel fractions and, in addition to unsorted grain samples, analyzed with LC-MS-MS for quantification of 10 mycotoxins. By removing the small kernel fraction (on average 15% and 21% of the weight of the samples from the two years, respectively), the mean concentrations of HT-2+T-2 toxins were reduced by 56% (from 745 to 328 µg/kg) in the 2015 samples and by 32% (from 178 to 121 µg/kg) in the 2018 samples. Deoxynivalenol (DON) was reduced by 24% (from 191 to 145 µg/kg) in the 2018 samples, and enniatin B (EnnB) by 44% (from 1059 to 594 µg/kg) in the 2015 samples. Despite low levels, our analyses showed a trend towards reduced content of DON, ADON, NIV, EnnA, EnnA1, EnnB1 and BEA after removing the small kernel fraction in samples from 2015. For several of the mycotoxins, the concentrations were considerably higher in the small kernel fraction compared to unsorted grain. Our results demonstrate that the level of mycotoxins in unprocessed oat grain can be reduced by removing small kernels. We assume that our study is the first report on the effect of size sorting on the content of enniatins (Enns), NIV and BEA in oat grains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guro Brodal
- Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), P.O.Box 115, N-1431 Ås, Norway; (H.U.A.); (M.A.); (I.S.H.)
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Kochiieru Y, Mankevičienė A, Cesevičienė J, Semaškienė R, Dabkevičius Z, Janavičienė S. The influence of harvesting time and meteorological conditions on the occurrence of Fusarium species and mycotoxin contamination of spring cereals. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2020; 100:2999-3006. [PMID: 32052451 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.10330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2019] [Revised: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The aim was to determine the influence of harvesting time and meteorological conditions on the occurrence of Fusarium spp. and mycotoxins in the grain of spring cereals. A field experiment was performed in 2016-2018 with spring oat (Avena sativa L.) and spring triticale (× Triticosecale Wittm.) plots. Grain samples of oat and triticale were analysed for Fusarium infection and co-contamination with mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA) and T-2 toxin (T-2). RESULTS Results from the three-year study showed that the occurrence of Fusarium spp. fungi and mycotoxins produced by them in spring oat and triticale grain was most influenced by the meteorological conditions at harvesting time and crop species. CONCLUSIONS It was found that in all experimental years, F. poae, F. tricinctum and F. sporotrichioides predominated in oat grains and F. graminearum, F. sporotrichioides and F. avenaceum predominated in spring triticale; as a result, oat grains were more contaminated with T-2 and triticale grains with DON and ZEA. Due to the rainy harvesting period in 2017, the contamination level of Fusarium fungi of grain of both crop species was 100%, and the concentrations of DON and ZEA in the samples of spring triticale were several times higher than those set forth in the EU regulation. Co-occurrence of all three mycotoxins analysed (DON, ZEA and T-2) was identified in these samples. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuliia Kochiieru
- Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Institute of Agriculture, Kėdainiai, Lithuania
| | - Audronė Mankevičienė
- Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Institute of Agriculture, Kėdainiai, Lithuania
| | - Jurgita Cesevičienė
- Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Institute of Agriculture, Kėdainiai, Lithuania
| | - Roma Semaškienė
- Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Institute of Agriculture, Kėdainiai, Lithuania
| | - Zenonas Dabkevičius
- Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Institute of Agriculture, Kėdainiai, Lithuania
| | - Sigita Janavičienė
- Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Institute of Agriculture, Kėdainiai, Lithuania
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Wang W, Ji Y, Yang W, Zhang C, Angwa L, Jin B, Liu J, Lv M, Ma W, Yang J, Wang K. Inhibitors of apoptosis proteins (IAPs) are associated with T-2 toxin-induced decreased collagen II in mouse chondrocytes in vitro. Toxicon 2020; 176:34-43. [PMID: 32103793 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2019] [Revised: 12/14/2019] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
T-2 toxin is considered an unavoidable pollutant, which contaminates food crops and stockpiled cereals, impairing the health of humans and animals due to its multi-organ toxicity. Studies have shown that T-2 toxin can cause articular cartilage damage; however, the underlying molecular mechanism is still unclear. Here, we investigated the possible mechanism of the following inhibitors of apoptosis proteins (IAPs) family members: NAIP, cIAP1, cIAP2, XIAP, and Survivin, and their involvement in T-2 toxin-induced mouse chondrocyte damage. In this study, mouse articular chondrocytes were isolated and cultured in vitro, and the chondrocytes were then treated with 0, 5, 10, and 20 ng/mL T-2 toxin. Firstly, the toxic effect of T-2 toxin on chondrocytes was determined. CCK-8 assay results showed that T-2 toxin induced a dose-dependent inhibition of chondrocyte viability. Transmission electron microscopy demonstrated that T-2 toxin caused morphological changes in chondrocyte endoplasmic reticulum and an increase in mitochondrial swelling. In addition, Annexin-V-FITC/PI staining and caspase 3 protein expression showed that T-2 toxin induced an increase in the apoptotic rate of chondrocytes. Secondly, it was found that T-2 toxin cause decreased expression of cellular and secreted Collagen II. Finally, we examined the expression of NAIP, cIAP1, cIAP2, XIAP, and Survivin in chondrocytes in the presence of T-2 toxin and their relationship with decreased Collagen II. The decrease in Collagen II was negatively correlated with the expression of cIAP1, cIAP2 and positively correlated with NAIP and Survivin mRNA level. Survivin mRNA level had a positive correlation with Collagen II as shown by partial correlation analysis. This study revealed the new role of IAPs in chondrocyte injury and provides new insights and clues into the mechanism of T-2 toxin-induced chondrocyte damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenji Wang
- Center for Endemic Disease Control, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention/ Key Lab of Etiology and Epidemiology, Education Bureau of Heilongjiang Province & Ministry of Health (23618504), Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, China; Institute of Cell Biotechnology, China and Russia Medical Research Center, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, China
| | - Yi Ji
- Center for Endemic Disease Control, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention/ Key Lab of Etiology and Epidemiology, Education Bureau of Heilongjiang Province & Ministry of Health (23618504), Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, China; Institute of Cell Biotechnology, China and Russia Medical Research Center, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, China
| | - Wenjing Yang
- Center for Endemic Disease Control, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention/ Key Lab of Etiology and Epidemiology, Education Bureau of Heilongjiang Province & Ministry of Health (23618504), Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, China; Institute of Cell Biotechnology, China and Russia Medical Research Center, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, China
| | - Chengzhi Zhang
- Center for Endemic Disease Control, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention/ Key Lab of Etiology and Epidemiology, Education Bureau of Heilongjiang Province & Ministry of Health (23618504), Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, China
| | - Linet Angwa
- Center for Endemic Disease Control, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention/ Key Lab of Etiology and Epidemiology, Education Bureau of Heilongjiang Province & Ministry of Health (23618504), Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, China; Department of Clinical Medicine, Kabarak University, Private Bag, 20157, Kabarak, Kenya
| | - Baiming Jin
- Center for Endemic Disease Control, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention/ Key Lab of Etiology and Epidemiology, Education Bureau of Heilongjiang Province & Ministry of Health (23618504), Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, China; Institute of Cell Biotechnology, China and Russia Medical Research Center, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, China; School of Public Health, Qiqihar Medical University, Qiqihar, 161006, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Juan Liu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, 150081, China
| | - Man Lv
- Center for Endemic Disease Control, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention/ Key Lab of Etiology and Epidemiology, Education Bureau of Heilongjiang Province & Ministry of Health (23618504), Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, China; Institute of Cell Biotechnology, China and Russia Medical Research Center, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, China
| | - Wenjing Ma
- Center for Endemic Disease Control, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention/ Key Lab of Etiology and Epidemiology, Education Bureau of Heilongjiang Province & Ministry of Health (23618504), Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, China; Institute of Cell Biotechnology, China and Russia Medical Research Center, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, China
| | - Jie Yang
- Center for Endemic Disease Control, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention/ Key Lab of Etiology and Epidemiology, Education Bureau of Heilongjiang Province & Ministry of Health (23618504), Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, China; Institute of Cell Biotechnology, China and Russia Medical Research Center, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, China
| | - Kewei Wang
- Center for Endemic Disease Control, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention/ Key Lab of Etiology and Epidemiology, Education Bureau of Heilongjiang Province & Ministry of Health (23618504), Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, China; Institute of Cell Biotechnology, China and Russia Medical Research Center, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, China; Departments of Surgery, University of Illinois College of Medicine, One Illini Drive, Peoria, IL, 61605, USA.
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Dai C, Xiao X, Sun F, Zhang Y, Hoyer D, Shen J, Tang S, Velkov T. T-2 toxin neurotoxicity: role of oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction. Arch Toxicol 2019; 93:3041-3056. [PMID: 31570981 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-019-02577-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Accepted: 09/17/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are highly diverse secondary metabolites produced in nature by a wide variety of fungi. Mycotoxins cause animal feed and food contamination, resulting in mycotoxicosis. T-2 toxin is one of the most common and toxic trichothecene mycotoxins. For the last decade, it has garnered considerable attention due to its potent neurotoxicity. Worryingly, T-2 toxin can cross the blood-brain barrier and accumulate in the central nervous system (CNS) to cause neurotoxicity. This review covers the current knowledge base on the molecular mechanisms of T-2 toxin-induced oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction in the CNS. In vitro and animal data have shown that induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and oxidative stress plays a critical role during T-2 toxin-induced neurotoxicity. Mitochondrial dysfunction and cascade signaling pathways including p53, MAPK, Akt/mTOR, PKA/CREB and NF-κB contribute to T-2 toxin-induced neuronal cell death. T-2 toxin exposure can also result in perturbations of mitochondrial respiratory chain complex and mitochondrial biogenesis. T-2 toxin exposure decreases the mitochondria unfolded protein response and dampens mitochondrial energy metabolism. Antioxidants such as N-acetylcysteine (NAC), activation of Nrf2/HO-1 and autophagy have been shown to provide a protective effect against these detrimental effects. Clearly, translational research and the discovery of effective treatment strategies are urgently required against this common food-borne threat to human health and livestock.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chongshan Dai
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, People's Republic of China. .,Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Harry Hines Blvd, Dallas, TX, 5323, USA.
| | - Xilong Xiao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, People's Republic of China
| | - Feifei Sun
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuan Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, People's Republic of China
| | - Daniel Hoyer
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Jianzhong Shen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, People's Republic of China
| | - Shusheng Tang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, People's Republic of China.
| | - Tony Velkov
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia.
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Grandi M, Vecchiato CG, Biagi G, Zironi E, Tondo MT, Pagliuca G, Palmonari A, Pinna C, Zaghini G, Gazzotti T. Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Extruded Commercial Cat Food. ACS OMEGA 2019; 4:14004-14012. [PMID: 31497718 PMCID: PMC6714290 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.9b01702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 06/26/2019] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence of the most important mycotoxins (deoxynivalenol, fumonisin B1 and B2, aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2, ochratoxin A, zearalenone, T-2, and HT-2 toxins) was determined in 64 extruded cat foods purchased in Italy through ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Deoxynivalenol and fumonisins were the most common contaminants (quantified in 80 and 95% of the samples, respectively). Conversely, aflatoxins B2, G1, and G2 were not identified in any sample. Some cat foods exceeded the regulatory limit for aflatoxin B1 (n = 3) or the guidance values for zearalenone (n = 3), fumonisins (n = 2), ochratoxin A (n = 1), and T-2 (n = 1) recently established for pets in the European Union. A widespread co-occurrence of mycotoxins was observed (28, 42, and 8% of the samples contained quantifiable amounts of two, three, and four mycotoxins, respectively). This study describes criticisms regarding the mycotoxin issue in pet food and suggests an improvement of the monitoring of the pet food chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Grandi
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences,
Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, via Tolara di Sopra 50, 40064 Ozzano dell’Emilia
(BO), Italy
| | - Carla G. Vecchiato
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences,
Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, via Tolara di Sopra 50, 40064 Ozzano dell’Emilia
(BO), Italy
| | - Giacomo Biagi
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences,
Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, via Tolara di Sopra 50, 40064 Ozzano dell’Emilia
(BO), Italy
| | - Elisa Zironi
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences,
Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, via Tolara di Sopra 50, 40064 Ozzano dell’Emilia
(BO), Italy
| | - Maria T. Tondo
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences,
Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, via Tolara di Sopra 50, 40064 Ozzano dell’Emilia
(BO), Italy
| | - Giampiero Pagliuca
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences,
Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, via Tolara di Sopra 50, 40064 Ozzano dell’Emilia
(BO), Italy
| | - Alberto Palmonari
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences,
Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, via Tolara di Sopra 50, 40064 Ozzano dell’Emilia
(BO), Italy
| | - Carlo Pinna
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences,
Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, via Tolara di Sopra 50, 40064 Ozzano dell’Emilia
(BO), Italy
| | - Giuliano Zaghini
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences,
Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, via Tolara di Sopra 50, 40064 Ozzano dell’Emilia
(BO), Italy
| | - Teresa Gazzotti
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences,
Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, via Tolara di Sopra 50, 40064 Ozzano dell’Emilia
(BO), Italy
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Kuchenbuch HS, Cramer B, Humpf HU. Matrix binding of T-2 toxin: structure elucidation of reaction products and indications on the fate of a relevant food-borne toxin during heating. Mycotoxin Res 2019; 35:261-270. [PMID: 30903560 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-019-00350-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Revised: 03/01/2019] [Accepted: 03/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
This study deals with the influence of food matrix components on the degradation of the mycotoxins T-2 toxin (T-2) and HT-2 toxin (HT-2) and with the binding of T-2 to starch during thermal food processing. Both mycotoxins were heated in a simulated food environment and subsequently analyzed via HPLC-HRMS to generate degradation curves and to draw conclusions regarding the thermal degradation under food processing conditions. Thermal degradation increased generally with increasing time and temperature with a maximum degradation rate of 93% (T-2) and 99% (HT-2). Furthermore, HRMS data were exploited to screen the samples for degradation products. In model heating experiments, T-2 was bound to 1-O-methyl-α-D-glucopyranoside, a model compound that was used to simulate starch. The formed reaction products were isolated and identified by NMR, giving detailed insights into a potential binding of T-2 to starch. In the next step, further model heating experiments were performed, which proved the covalent binding of T-2 to starch. Finally, the amount of matrix-bound T-2 was estimated roughly in a semi-quantitative approach in the model heating experiments as well as during cookie-making via GC-MS analysis of the isovaleric acid ester moiety of T-2, released after alkaline hydrolysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henning S Kuchenbuch
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstr. 45, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Benedikt Cramer
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstr. 45, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Hans-Ulrich Humpf
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstr. 45, 48149, Münster, Germany.
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42
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Wang Z, Sparling M, Tague B. Analysis of perchlorate in baby food on Canadian (Ottawa) markets in 2009 and estimated dietary exposure. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2018; 35:2022-2031. [PMID: 30188260 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2018.1508891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
In order to determine the baseline levels of perchlorate in major brands of baby food, 200 baby food products were collected from retail stores in Ottawa, Canada and analysed for perchlorate in 2010. The seven food groups tested were fruit, juices, vegetables, meat, yogurt, mixed (vegetable mixed with meat) and other (e.g. vegetable mixed with meat and cereal, cheese, egg,). Samples were extracted with a mixture of methanol and 1% acetic acid (4:1, v/v). Determination was conducted by stable isotope dilution ion chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (ID-IC-MS/MS). The complexity of different food matrices required additional method validation. The perchlorate levels in 46 samples were found to be lower than the quantification limit (0.2 ng g-1). The perchlorate levels in the other 154 baby food samples were also low; about 96.7% of the baby foods had perchlorate levels less than 10 ng g-1 (ranged from 0.2 to 22.4 ng g-1, median1.35 ng g-1); only 5 samples had perchlorate levels higher than 10 ng g-1. Dietary exposure to perchlorate from analysed baby food was conservatively estimated to range from 0.007 to 0.121 µg/kg bw/d based on the mean intake for children (1-5 years old).
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongwen Wang
- a Food Research Division, Bureau of Chemical Safety, Food Directorate, Health Product and Food Branch , Health Canada , Ottawa , Canada
| | - Melissa Sparling
- a Food Research Division, Bureau of Chemical Safety, Food Directorate, Health Product and Food Branch , Health Canada , Ottawa , Canada
| | - Brett Tague
- a Food Research Division, Bureau of Chemical Safety, Food Directorate, Health Product and Food Branch , Health Canada , Ottawa , Canada
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43
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Eskola M, Altieri A, Galobart J. Overview of the activities of the European Food Safety Authority on mycotoxins in food and feed. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2018. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2017.2270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are widely occurring in foods and feeds and dietary exposure to them can induce various types of adverse health effects in humans and animals. Since its establishment in 2002, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has assessed risks of dietary exposure to mycotoxins for public health and for the health of farm and companion animals on the request of the European Commission and has assessed safety and efficacy of feed additives for the reduction of contamination of feed by mycotoxins within the European Union authorisation process for feed additives. Over 40 scientific opinions on risks of mycotoxins for human and animal health and other reports on mycotoxins have been issued by the authority for the use of the European risk managers. Mycotoxins belong to one of the important areas of the EFSA work. Occurrence data on mycotoxins submitted to EFSA by the European national food safety bodies and research institutions have been collected in the EFSA databases and have informed its scientific opinions and reports on mycotoxins. Similarly, many EFSA-funded projects conducted by the European research organisations, not only to generate data on occurrence, but also data on toxicity of mycotoxins, have provided valuable information for the risk assessments of EFSA. Aflatoxin and deoxynivalenol are the mycotoxins, for which EFSA has delivered most of its scientific mycotoxin opinions. Very recently also modified forms of mycotoxins have been included in the EFSA risk assessments. In this review paper an overview of many different EFSA activities on mycotoxins is given. It also includes a brief description how EFSA develops its scientific opinions and works.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Eskola
- Center for Analytical Chemistry, BOKU-University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Department IFA-Tulln, Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - A. Altieri
- Evidence Management Unit, European Food Safety Authority EFSA, Via Carlo Magno 1A, 43126 Parma, Italy
| | - J. Galobart
- Feed Unit, European Food Safety Authority EFSA, Via Carlo Magno 1A, 43126 Parma, Italy
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44
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Janssen E, Liu C, Van der Fels-Klerx H. Fusarium infection and trichothecenes in barley and its comparison with wheat. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2018. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2017.2255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Barley is a small-grain cereal that can be infected by Fusarium spp. resulting in reduced quality and safety of harvested barley (products). Barley and other small-grain cereals are commonly studied together for Fusarium infection and related mycotoxin contamination, since the infection and its influencing factors are assumed to be the same for all small-grain cereals. Using relevant literature, this study reviewed Fusarium spp. infection and mycotoxin contamination, mainly T-2/HT-2 toxin and deoxynivalenol (DON), in barley specifically. For the first time, review results provide an extensive overview of the influencing factors for Fusarium infection and mycotoxin production in barley, such as weather, agricultural management and processing factors, and includes the comparison of these mechanisms in wheat. Results showed that Fusarium infection in barley is difficult to recognise in the field and mycotoxin levels cannot be estimated based on the symptoms. These factors make it difficult to establish the real severity of Fusarium infection in barley. In addition, most pre-harvest measures to mitigate initial Fusarium infection, such as cultivar use and soil cultivation, are the same for barley and wheat, but due to anatomical differences, some pre-harvest measures have a different effect on Fusarium infection in barley. For example, the effective moment (days after anthesis) of fungicide application in barley and wheat is different. Also, in wheat, there is an additional effect of multiple fungicide applications in reducing Fusarium Head Blight and DON concentrations, whereas in barley, no additional effect of multiple application is seen. Hence, care should be taken to use data from one small-grain cereal to draw conclusions on other small-grain cereals.
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Affiliation(s)
- E.M. Janssen
- Business Economics Group, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 8130, 6700 EW Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - C. Liu
- RIKILT, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - H.J. Van der Fels-Klerx
- Business Economics Group, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 8130, 6700 EW Wageningen, the Netherlands
- RIKILT, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, the Netherlands
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