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Gupta V, Shekhawat SS, Kulshreshtha NM, Gupta AB. A systematic review on chlorine tolerance among bacteria and standardization of their assessment protocol in wastewater. WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : A JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION ON WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH 2022; 86:261-291. [PMID: 35906907 DOI: 10.2166/wst.2022.206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Though chlorine is a cost-effective disinfectant for water and wastewaters, the bacteria surviving after chlorination pose serious public health and environmental problems. This review critically assesses the mechanism of chlorine disinfection as described by various researchers; factors affecting chlorination efficacy; and the re-growth potential of microbial contaminations in treated wastewater post chlorination to arrive at meaningful doses for ensuring health safety. Literature analysis shows procedural inconsistencies in the assessment of chlorine tolerant bacteria, making it extremely difficult to compare the tolerance characteristics of different reported tolerant bacteria. A comparison of logarithmic reduction after chlorination and the concentration-time values for prominent pathogens led to the generation of a standard protocol for the assessment of chlorine tolerance. The factors that need to be critically monitored include applied chlorine doses, contact time, determination of chlorine demands of the medium, and the consideration of bacterial counts immediately after chlorination and in post chlorinated samples (regrowth). The protocol devised here appropriately assesses the chlorine-tolerant bacteria and urges the scientific community to report the regrowth characteristics as well. This would increase the confidence in data interpretation that can provide a better understanding of chlorine tolerance in bacteria and aid in formulating strategies for effective chlorination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinayak Gupta
- Alumnus, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore; School of Environment and Society, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Sandeep Singh Shekhawat
- Department of Civil Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur, India E-mail: ; School of Life and Basic Sciences, SIILAS Campus, Jaipur National University Jaipur, India
| | - Niha Mohan Kulshreshtha
- Department of Civil Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur, India E-mail:
| | - Akhilendra Bhushan Gupta
- Department of Civil Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur, India E-mail:
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Ekundayo TC, Igwaran A, Oluwafemi YD, Okoh AI. Global bibliometric meta-analytic assessment of research trends on microbial chlorine resistance in drinking water/water treatment systems. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2021; 278:111641. [PMID: 33221673 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Revised: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Chlorine is the commonest and cheapest disinfectant used in drinking water and wastewater treatment at household, municipal and industrial levels. However, the uprising of microbial chlorine resistance (MCR) pose critical public health hazard concerns; because, its potentiate exposure to difficult-to-treat resistant pathogens. Therefore, this study aimed at evaluating the burden of MCR in drinking water/wastewater treatment and distribution systems (DWWTDS) via science mapping of research productivity (authors, countries, institutions), thematic conceptual framework, disciplines, research networks and associated intellectual landscape. MCR data were mined from Scopus and Web of Science based on optimized algorithms with the root key term "chlorine* resistant*'' and analysed for pre-set indicator variables. Results revealed 1127 documents from 442 journals and 1430% average growth rate (AGR) of research articles from 2017 to 2019 on MCR. Country-wise, the USA (n = 299), China (n = 119), and Japan (n = 43) ranked in the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd positions respectively, among the top participating countries in MCR research. MCR research had considerable performance in public health and sustainable concern subjects namely, Environmental Sciences & Ecology, Engineering, Microbiology, Water Resources, Biotechnology & Applied Microbiology, Food Science & Technology, Public, Environ & Occupational Health, Chemistry, Infectious Diseases, and Marine & Freshwater Biology; and with noticeable AGR in Environmental Sciences & Ecology (330%) and Infectious Diseases (130%). The study found biofilm-related thrusts (n = 90, 270% AGR) as main research hotspots on MCR. Overall, the study identified and discussed four important thematic areas of public health challenges in MCR that could promote increasing waterborne diseases due to (re)emerging pathogens, enteric viruses and dissemination in DWWTDS. In conclusion, this study provides comprehensive overview of the growing burden of MCR in DWWTDS and standout as a primer of information for researchers on MCR. It recommends direct, intentional and integrated research priorities on MCR to overcome accompanying public health and environmental threats. In addition, chlorine resistance in waterborne fungi have not received research attention. Research activities related to fungal chlorine resistance will be an invaluable future direction in DWWTDS and guide against exposure to waterborne pathogenic fungi and mycotoxins. It is unknown whether chlorine resistance can be acquired by horizontal gene transfer in microorganisms and future research should elucidate this important thrust.
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Affiliation(s)
- Temitope C Ekundayo
- SAMRC Microbial Water Quality Monitoring Centre, University of Fort Hare, Alice 5700, Eastern Cape, South Africa; Applied and Environmental Microbiology Research Group (AEMREG), Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Fort Hare, Alice 5700, Eastern Cape, South Africa; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Medical Sciences, Ondo City PMB 536, Ondo State, Nigeria.
| | - Aboi Igwaran
- SAMRC Microbial Water Quality Monitoring Centre, University of Fort Hare, Alice 5700, Eastern Cape, South Africa; Applied and Environmental Microbiology Research Group (AEMREG), Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Fort Hare, Alice 5700, Eastern Cape, South Africa
| | - Yinka D Oluwafemi
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Medical Sciences, Ondo City PMB 536, Ondo State, Nigeria
| | - Anthony I Okoh
- SAMRC Microbial Water Quality Monitoring Centre, University of Fort Hare, Alice 5700, Eastern Cape, South Africa; Applied and Environmental Microbiology Research Group (AEMREG), Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Fort Hare, Alice 5700, Eastern Cape, South Africa
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Luo LW, Wu YH, Yu T, Wang YH, Chen GQ, Tong X, Bai Y, Xu C, Wang HB, Ikuno N, Hu HY. Evaluating method and potential risks of chlorine-resistant bacteria (CRB): A review. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 188:116474. [PMID: 33039832 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.116474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Revised: 09/07/2020] [Accepted: 09/27/2020] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Chlorine-resistant bacteria (CRB) are commonly defined as bacteria with high resistance to chlorine disinfection or bacteria which can survive or even regrow in the residual chlorine. Chlorine disinfection cannot completely control the risks of CRB, such as risks of pathogenicity, antibiotic resistance and microbial growth. Currently, researchers pay more attention to CRB with pathogenicity or antibiotic resistance. The microbial growth risks of non-pathogenic CRB in water treatment and reclamation systems have been neglected to some extent. In this review, these three kinds of risks are all analyzed, and the last one is also highlighted. In order to study CRB, various methods are used to evaluate chlorine resistance. This review summarizes the evaluating methods for chlorine resistance reported in the literatures, and collects the important information about the typical isolated CRB strains including their genera, sources and levels of chlorine resistance. To our knowledge, few review papers have provided such systematic information about CRB. Among 44 typical CRB strains from 17 genera isolated by researchers, Mycobacterium, Bacillus, Legionella, Pseudomonas and Sphingomonas were the five genera with the highest frequency of occurrence in literatures. They are all pathogenic or opportunistic pathogenic bacteria. In addition, although there are many studies on CRB, information about chlorine resistance level is still limited to specie level or strain level. The difference in chlorine resistance level among different bacterial genera is less well understood. An inconvenient truth is that there is still no widely-accepted method to evaluate chlorine resistance and to identify CRB. Due to the lack of a unified method, it is difficult to compare the results about chlorine resistance level of bacterial strains in different literatures. A recommended evaluating method using logarithmic removal rate as an index and E. coli as a reference strain is proposed in this review based on the summary of the current evaluating methods. This method can provide common range of chlorine resistance of each genus and it is conducive to analyzing the distribution and abundance of CRB in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Wei Luo
- Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control State Key Joint Laboratory, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control (SMARC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yin-Hu Wu
- Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control State Key Joint Laboratory, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control (SMARC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.
| | - Tong Yu
- Qingdao University of Technology, Qingdao 266000, China
| | - Yun-Hong Wang
- Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control State Key Joint Laboratory, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control (SMARC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Gen-Qiang Chen
- Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control State Key Joint Laboratory, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control (SMARC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Xin Tong
- Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control State Key Joint Laboratory, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control (SMARC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yuan Bai
- Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control State Key Joint Laboratory, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control (SMARC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Chuang Xu
- Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control State Key Joint Laboratory, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control (SMARC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Hao-Bin Wang
- Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control State Key Joint Laboratory, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control (SMARC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Nozomu Ikuno
- Kurita Water Industries Ltd., Nakano-ku, Tokyo 164-0001, Japan
| | - Hong-Ying Hu
- Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control State Key Joint Laboratory, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control (SMARC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Shenzhen Environmental Science and New Energy Technology Engineering Laboratory, Tsinghua-Berkeley Shenzhen Institute, Shenzhen 518055, China
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Gu G, Ottesen A, Bolten S, Luo Y, Rideout S, Nou X. Microbiome convergence following sanitizer treatment and identification of sanitizer resistant species from spinach and lettuce rinse water. Int J Food Microbiol 2020; 318:108458. [PMID: 31816526 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2019.108458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2019] [Revised: 11/19/2019] [Accepted: 11/21/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Fresh produce, as a known or suspected source of multiple foodborne outbreaks, harbors large populations of diverse microorganisms, which are partially released into wash water during processing. However, the dynamics of bacterial communities in wash water during produce processing is poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the effect of chlorine (FC) and peracetic acid (PAA) on the microbiome dynamics in spinach and romaine lettuce rinse water. Treatments with increasing concentrations of sanitizers resulted in convergence of distinct microbiomes. The resultant sanitizer resistant microbiome showed dominant presence by Bacillus sp., Arthrobacter psychrolactophilus, Cupriavidus sp., and Ralstonia sp. Most of the FC and PAA resistant bacteria isolated from spinach and lettuce rinse water after sanitation were gram positive spore forming species including Bacillus, Paenibacillus, and Brevibacillus spp., while several PAA resistant Pseudomonas spp. were also isolated from lettuce rinse water. Inoculation of foodborne pathogens altered the microbiome shift in spinach rinse water under PAA treatment, but not in lettuce rinse water or FC treated samples. These inoculated foodborne pathogens were not isolated among the sanitizer resistant strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ganyu Gu
- Environmental Microbiology and Food Safety Laboratory, USDA ARS, Beltsville, MD, United States of America; Eastern Shore Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Virginia Tech, Painter, VA 23420, United States of America
| | - Andrea Ottesen
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, US FDA, College Park, MD 20740, United States of America
| | - Samantha Bolten
- Environmental Microbiology and Food Safety Laboratory, USDA ARS, Beltsville, MD, United States of America
| | - Yaguang Luo
- Environmental Microbiology and Food Safety Laboratory, USDA ARS, Beltsville, MD, United States of America
| | - Steven Rideout
- Eastern Shore Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Virginia Tech, Painter, VA 23420, United States of America
| | - Xiangwu Nou
- Environmental Microbiology and Food Safety Laboratory, USDA ARS, Beltsville, MD, United States of America.
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Ding W, Jin W, Cao S, Zhou X, Wang C, Jiang Q, Huang H, Tu R, Han SF, Wang Q. Ozone disinfection of chlorine-resistant bacteria in drinking water. WATER RESEARCH 2019; 160:339-349. [PMID: 31158616 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Revised: 04/26/2019] [Accepted: 05/04/2019] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The wide application of chlorine disinfectant for drinking water treatment has led to the appearance of chlorine-resistant bacteria, which pose a severe threat to public health. This study was performed to explore the physiological-biochemical characteristics and environmental influence (pH, temperature, and turbidity) of seven strains of chlorine-resistant bacteria isolated from drinking water. Ozone disinfection was used to investigate the inactivation effect of bacteria and spores. The DNA concentration and cell surface structure variations of typical chlorine-resistant spores (Bacillus cereus spores) were also analysed by real-time qPCR, flow cytometry, and scanning electron microscopy to determine their inactivation mechanisms. The ozone resistance of bacteria (Aeromonas jandaei < Vogesella perlucida < Pelomonas < Bacillus cereus < Aeromonas sobria) was lower than that of spores (Bacillus alvei < Lysinibacillus fusiformis < Bacillus cereus) at an ozone concentration of 1.5 mg/L. More than 99.9% of Bacillus cereus spores were inactivated by increasing ozone concentration and treatment duration. Moreover, the DNA content of Bacillus cereus spores decreased sharply, but approximately 1/4 of the target genes remained. The spore structure exhibited shrinkage and folding after ozone treatment. Both cell structures and gene fragments were damaged by ozone disinfection. These results showed that ozone disinfection is a promising method for inactivating chlorine-resistant bacteria and spores in drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanqing Ding
- Shenzhen Engineering Laboratory of Microalgal Bioenergy, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Wenbiao Jin
- Shenzhen Engineering Laboratory of Microalgal Bioenergy, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Song Cao
- Shenzhen Engineering Laboratory of Microalgal Bioenergy, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Xu Zhou
- Shenzhen Engineering Laboratory of Microalgal Bioenergy, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen 518055, China.
| | | | - Qijun Jiang
- Shenshui Baoan Water Group Co., Ltd, Shenzhen, China
| | - Hui Huang
- Shenshui Baoan Water Group Co., Ltd, Shenzhen, China
| | - Renjie Tu
- Shenzhen Engineering Laboratory of Microalgal Bioenergy, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Song-Fang Han
- Shenzhen Engineering Laboratory of Microalgal Bioenergy, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Qilin Wang
- Centre for Technology in Water and Wastewater, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, 2007, Australia
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