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Shang Y, Liu T, Wang W. The potential of lenvatinib in breast cancer therapy. Med Oncol 2024; 41:233. [PMID: 39172293 DOI: 10.1007/s12032-024-02477-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2024] [Accepted: 08/12/2024] [Indexed: 08/23/2024]
Abstract
Breast cancer, as a highly prevalent cancer among women, is one of the main causes of female mortality due to cancer. There is a need for more treatment options to improve the survival time of breast cancer patients. Metastasis to distant organs is a standard indicator of advanced breast cancer and a primary cause of breast cancer mortality, making the control of breast cancer metastasis crucial. Targeted therapy, with its advantages of precision, high effectiveness, and minimal side effects, has garnered significant attention as a hot research topic in breast cancer treatment. Among these therapies, anti-angiogenic therapy aim to inhibit tumor angiogenesis, control tumor growth, and reduce metastasis. Additionally, anti-angiogenic therapy can restructure the tumor vasculature, enhancing the effectiveness of other anti-cancer drugs. Lenvatinib, an orally available small molecule multi-targeted tyrosine kinase inhibitor, exerts its anti-tumor effects mainly by inhibiting tumor angiogenesis and tumor cell proliferation. It has been approved for the treatment of thyroid cancer, renal cell carcinoma, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Due to its multi-targeted nature, lenvatinib not only has direct anti-tumor effects but also possesses immunomodulatory activity, which can enhance the tumor immune response. This makes it a promising candidate for a broad range of cancers. Recent studies have explored the role of lenvatinib in breast cancer, including its various mechanisms of action and its use as a monotherapy or in combination to control breast cancer progression. This review will summarize the molecular mechanisms and research progress of lenvatinib in breast cancer treatment, discussing its potential applications and therapeutic prospects in managing breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuefeng Shang
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Tumor Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China
- Department of Breast Surgery, Tumor Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Tong Liu
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Tumor Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China
- Department of Breast Surgery, Tumor Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenjing Wang
- Beijing Institute of Hepatology, Beijing YouAn Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, People's Republic of China.
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2
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De Simone M, Conti V, Palermo G, De Maria L, Iaconetta G. Advancements in Glioma Care: Focus on Emerging Neurosurgical Techniques. Biomedicines 2023; 12:8. [PMID: 38275370 PMCID: PMC10813759 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines12010008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2023] [Revised: 12/08/2023] [Accepted: 12/09/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite significant advances in understanding the molecular pathways of glioma, translating this knowledge into effective long-term solutions remains a challenge. Indeed, gliomas pose a significant challenge to neurosurgical oncology because of their diverse histopathological features, genetic heterogeneity, and clinical manifestations. Relevant sections: This study focuses on glioma complexity by reviewing recent advances in their management, also considering new classification systems and emerging neurosurgical techniques. To bridge the gap between new neurosurgical approaches and standards of care, the importance of molecular diagnosis and the use of techniques such as laser interstitial thermal therapy (LITT) and focused ultrasound (FUS) are emphasized, exploring how the integration of molecular knowledge with emerging neurosurgical approaches can personalize and improve the treatment of gliomas. CONCLUSIONS The choice between LITT and FUS should be tailored to each case, considering factors such as tumor characteristics and patient health. LITT is favored for larger, complex tumors, while FUS is standard for smaller, deep-seated ones. Both techniques are equally effective for small and superficial tumors. Our study provides clear guidance for treating pediatric low-grade gliomas and highlights the crucial roles of LITT and FUS in managing high-grade gliomas in adults. This research sets the stage for improved patient care and future developments in the field of neurosurgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo De Simone
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry “Scuola Medica Salernitana”, University of Salerno, Via S. Allende, 84081 Baronissi, Italy; (V.C.); (G.P.); (G.I.)
| | - Valeria Conti
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry “Scuola Medica Salernitana”, University of Salerno, Via S. Allende, 84081 Baronissi, Italy; (V.C.); (G.P.); (G.I.)
- Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacogenetics Unit, University Hospital “San Giovanni di Dio e Ruggi, D’Aragona”, 84131 Salerno, Italy
| | - Giuseppina Palermo
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry “Scuola Medica Salernitana”, University of Salerno, Via S. Allende, 84081 Baronissi, Italy; (V.C.); (G.P.); (G.I.)
| | - Lucio De Maria
- Unit of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgical Specialties, Radiological Sciences, and Public Health, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy;
- Unit of Neurosurgery, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Geneva University Hospitals (HUG), 1205 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Giorgio Iaconetta
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry “Scuola Medica Salernitana”, University of Salerno, Via S. Allende, 84081 Baronissi, Italy; (V.C.); (G.P.); (G.I.)
- Neurosurgery Unit, University Hospital “San Giovanni di Dio e Ruggi, D’Aragona”, 84131 Salerno, Italy
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3
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Benjamin M, Malakar P, Sinha RA, Nasser MW, Batra SK, Siddiqui JA, Chakravarti B. Molecular signaling network and therapeutic developments in breast cancer brain metastasis. ADVANCES IN CANCER BIOLOGY - METASTASIS 2023; 7:100079. [PMID: 36536947 PMCID: PMC7613958 DOI: 10.1016/j.adcanc.2022.100079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Breast cancer (BC) is one of the most frequently diagnosed cancers in women worldwide. It has surpassed lung cancer as the leading cause of cancer-related death. Breast cancer brain metastasis (BCBM) is becoming a major clinical concern that is commonly associated with ER-ve and HER2+ve subtypes of BC patients. Metastatic lesions in the brain originate when the cancer cells detach from a primary breast tumor and establish metastatic lesions and infiltrate near and distant organs via systemic blood circulation by traversing the BBB. The colonization of BC cells in the brain involves a complex interplay in the tumor microenvironment (TME), metastatic cells, and brain cells like endothelial cells, microglia, and astrocytes. BCBM is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality and presents a challenge to developing successful cancer therapy. In this review, we discuss the molecular mechanism of BCBM and novel therapeutic strategies for patients with brain metastatic BC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mercilena Benjamin
- Lab Oncology, Dr. B.R.A.I.R.C.H. All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Pushkar Malakar
- Department of Biomedical Science and Technology, School of Biological Sciences, Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda Educational and Research Institute, Narendrapur, West Bengal, 700103, India
| | - Rohit Anthony Sinha
- Department of Endocrinology, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, 226014, India
| | - Mohd Wasim Nasser
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA
- Fred and Pamela Buffett Cancer Center, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68108, USA
| | - Surinder K. Batra
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA
- Fred and Pamela Buffett Cancer Center, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68108, USA
| | - Jawed Akhtar Siddiqui
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA
- Fred and Pamela Buffett Cancer Center, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68108, USA
| | - Bandana Chakravarti
- Department of Endocrinology, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, 226014, India
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4
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Nagarajan PP, Tora MS, Neill SG, Federici T, Texakalidis P, Donsante A, Canoll P, Lei K, Boulis NM. Lentiviral-Induced Spinal Cord Gliomas in Rat Model. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:12943. [PMID: 34884748 PMCID: PMC8657985 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222312943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Intramedullary spinal cord tumors are a rare and understudied cancer with poor treatment options and prognosis. Our prior study used a combination of PDGF-B, HRAS, and p53 knockdown to induce the development of high-grade glioma in the spinal cords of minipigs. In this study, we evaluate the ability of each vector alone and combinations of vectors to produce high-grade spinal cord gliomas. Eight groups of rats (n = 8/group) underwent thoracolumbar laminectomy and injection of lentiviral vector in the lateral white matter of the spinal cord. Each group received a different combination of lentiviral vectors expressing PDGF-B, a constitutively active HRAS mutant, or shRNA targeting p53, or a control vector. All animals were monitored once per week for clinical deficits for 98 days. Tissues were harvested and analyzed using hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and immunohistochemical (IHC) staining. Rats injected with PDGF-B+HRAS+sh-p53 (triple cocktail) exhibited statistically significant declines in all behavioral measures (Basso Beattie Bresnahan scoring, Tarlov scoring, weight, and survival rate) over time when compared to the control. Histologically, all groups except the control and those injected with sh-p53 displayed the development of tumors at the injection site, although there were differences in the rate of tumor growth and the histopathological features of the lesions between groups. Examination of immunohistochemistry revealed rats receiving triple cocktail displayed the largest and most significant increase in the Ki67 proliferation index and GFAP positivity than any other group. PDGF-B+HRAS also displayed a significant increase in the Ki67 proliferation index. Rats receiving PDGF-B alone and PDGF-B+ sh-p53 displayed more a significant increase in SOX2-positive staining than in any other group. We found that different vector combinations produced differing high-grade glioma models in rodents. The combination of all three vectors produced a model of high-grade glioma more efficiently and aggressively with respect to behavioral, physiological, and histological characteristics than the rest of the vector combinations. Thus, the present rat model of spinal cord glioma may potentially be used to evaluate therapeutic strategies in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Purva P. Nagarajan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; (P.P.N.); (M.S.T.); (T.F.); (P.T.); (A.D.)
| | - Muhibullah S. Tora
- Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; (P.P.N.); (M.S.T.); (T.F.); (P.T.); (A.D.)
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Stewart G. Neill
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA;
| | - Thais Federici
- Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; (P.P.N.); (M.S.T.); (T.F.); (P.T.); (A.D.)
| | - Pavlos Texakalidis
- Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; (P.P.N.); (M.S.T.); (T.F.); (P.T.); (A.D.)
| | - Anthony Donsante
- Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; (P.P.N.); (M.S.T.); (T.F.); (P.T.); (A.D.)
| | - Peter Canoll
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA;
| | - Kecheng Lei
- Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; (P.P.N.); (M.S.T.); (T.F.); (P.T.); (A.D.)
| | - Nicholas M. Boulis
- Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; (P.P.N.); (M.S.T.); (T.F.); (P.T.); (A.D.)
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
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Poonan P, Agoni C, Soliman MES. Dual-Knockout of Mutant Isocitrate Dehydrogenase 1 and 2 Subtypes Towards Glioma Therapy: Structural Mechanistic Insights on the Role of Vorasidenib. Chem Biodivers 2021; 18. [PMID: 33982420 DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.202100110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Recently, Vorasidenib (AG-881) has been reported as a therapeutic alternative that exerts potent dual inhibitory activity against mIDH1/2 towards the treatment of low-grade glioma. However, structural and dynamic events associated with its dual inhibition mechanism remain unclear. As such, we employ integrative computer-assisted atomistic techniques to provide thorough structural and dynamic insights. Our analysis proved that the dual-targeting ability of AG-881 is mediated by Val255/Val294 within the binding pockets of both mIDH1 and mIDH2 which are shown to elicit a strong intermolecular interaction, thus favoring binding affinity. The structural orientations of AG-881 within the respective hydrophobic pockets allowed favorable interactions with binding site residues which accounted for its high binding free energy of -28.69 kcal/mol and -19.89 kcal/mol towards mIDH1 and mIDH2, respectively. Interestingly, upon binding, AG-881 was found to trigger systemic alterations of mIDH1 and mIDH2 characterized by restricted residue flexibility and a reduction in exposure of residues to the solvent surface area. As a result of these structural alterations, crucial interactions of the mutant enzymes were inhibited, a phenomenon that results in a suppression of the production of oncogenic stimulator 2-HG. Findings therefore provide thorough structural and dynamic insights associated with the dual inhibitory activity of AG-881 towards glioma therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Preantha Poonan
- Molecular Bio-computation and Drug Design Laboratory, School of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban, 4001, South Africa
| | - Clement Agoni
- Molecular Bio-computation and Drug Design Laboratory, School of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban, 4001, South Africa
| | - Mahmoud E S Soliman
- Molecular Bio-computation and Drug Design Laboratory, School of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban, 4001, South Africa
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Picturing Breast Cancer Brain Metastasis Development to Unravel Molecular Players and Cellular Crosstalk. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13040910. [PMID: 33671551 PMCID: PMC7926545 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13040910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2021] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Breast cancer is a devastating disorder affecting millions of women worldwide. With improved therapeutics for the primary tumor, the appearance of metastasis has been increasing. Breast cancer frequently metastasizes to the brain, constituting a major hurdle without cure and with a poor survival. It is imperative to better understand the mechanisms involved in malignant cell transposition of the brain microvasculature and parenchymal colonization by deciphering the alterations occurring in the tumor and microvascular cells, as well as the occurrence of intercellular communication during the process. We aimed to profile the process of the formation of breast cancer brain metastasis and the timeline of events governing it. We used a specific mouse model of the disease to perform extensive microscopic analyses. We identified phenotypic changes and the activation of relevant molecular players in tumorigenesis, together with vascular alterations, and the occurrence of crosstalk. Our findings unravel putative therapeutic targets to tackle breast cancer brain metastasis. Abstract With breast cancer (BC) therapy improvements, the appearance of brain metastases has been increasing, representing a life-threatening condition. Brain metastasis formation involves BC cell (BCC) extravasation across the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and brain colonization by unclear mechanisms. We aimed to disclose the actors involved in BC brain metastasis formation, focusing on BCCs’ phenotype, growth factor expression, and signaling pathway activation, correlating with BBB alterations and intercellular communication. Hippocampi of female mice inoculated with 4T1 BCCs were examined over time by hematoxylin-eosin, immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence. Well-established metastases were observed at seven days, increasing thereafter. BCCs entering brain parenchyma presented mesenchymal, migratory, and proliferative features; however, with time, they increasingly expressed epithelial markers, reflecting a mesenchymal–epithelial transition. BCCs also expressed platelet-derived growth factor-B, β4 integrin, and focal adhesion kinase, suggesting autocrine and/or paracrine regulation with adhesion signaling activation, while balance between Rac1 and RhoA was associated with the motility status. Intercellular communication via gap junctions was clear among BCCs, and between BCCs and endothelial cells. Thrombin accumulation, junctional protein impairment, and vesicular proteins increase reflect BBB alterations related with extravasation. Expression of plasmalemma vesicle-associated protein was increased in BCCs, along with augmented vascularization, whereas pericyte contraction indicated mural cells’ activation. Our results provide further understanding of BC brain metastasis formation, disclosing potential therapeutic targets.
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Gallaher JA, Massey SC, Hawkins-Daarud A, Noticewala SS, Rockne RC, Johnston SK, Gonzalez-Cuyar L, Juliano J, Gil O, Swanson KR, Canoll P, Anderson ARA. From cells to tissue: How cell scale heterogeneity impacts glioblastoma growth and treatment response. PLoS Comput Biol 2020; 16:e1007672. [PMID: 32101537 PMCID: PMC7062288 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1007672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2019] [Revised: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastomas are aggressive primary brain tumors known for their inter- and intratumor heterogeneity. This disease is uniformly fatal, with intratumor heterogeneity the major reason for treatment failure and recurrence. Just like the nature vs nurture debate, heterogeneity can arise from intrinsic or environmental influences. Whilst it is impossible to clinically separate observed behavior of cells from their environmental context, using a mathematical framework combined with multiscale data gives us insight into the relative roles of variation from different sources. To better understand the implications of intratumor heterogeneity on therapeutic outcomes, we created a hybrid agent-based mathematical model that captures both the overall tumor kinetics and the individual cellular behavior. We track single cells as agents, cell density on a coarser scale, and growth factor diffusion and dynamics on a finer scale over time and space. Our model parameters were fit utilizing serial MRI imaging and cell tracking data from ex vivo tissue slices acquired from a growth-factor driven glioblastoma murine model. When fitting our model to serial imaging only, there was a spectrum of equally-good parameter fits corresponding to a wide range of phenotypic behaviors. When fitting our model using imaging and cell scale data, we determined that environmental heterogeneity alone is insufficient to match the single cell data, and intrinsic heterogeneity is required to fully capture the migration behavior. The wide spectrum of in silico tumors also had a wide variety of responses to an application of an anti-proliferative treatment. Recurrent tumors were generally less proliferative than pre-treatment tumors as measured via the model simulations and validated from human GBM patient histology. Further, we found that all tumors continued to grow with an anti-migratory treatment alone, but the anti-proliferative/anti-migratory combination generally showed improvement over an anti-proliferative treatment alone. Together our results emphasize the need to better understand the underlying phenotypes and tumor heterogeneity present in a tumor when designing therapeutic regimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jill A. Gallaher
- Integrated Mathematical Oncology, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, Florida, United States of America
| | - Susan C. Massey
- Precision NeuroTherapeutics Innovation Program, Mathematical NeuroOncology Lab, Mayo Clinic, Phoenix, Arizona, United States of America
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Phoenix, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Andrea Hawkins-Daarud
- Precision NeuroTherapeutics Innovation Program, Mathematical NeuroOncology Lab, Mayo Clinic, Phoenix, Arizona, United States of America
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Phoenix, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Sonal S. Noticewala
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, United States of America
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Russell C. Rockne
- Division of Mathematical Oncology, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California, United States of America
| | - Sandra K. Johnston
- Precision NeuroTherapeutics Innovation Program, Mathematical NeuroOncology Lab, Mayo Clinic, Phoenix, Arizona, United States of America
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Phoenix, Arizona, United States of America
- Department of Radiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Luis Gonzalez-Cuyar
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Joseph Juliano
- Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Orlando Gil
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, United States of America
- Department of Biology, Hunter College, City University of New York, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Kristin R. Swanson
- Precision NeuroTherapeutics Innovation Program, Mathematical NeuroOncology Lab, Mayo Clinic, Phoenix, Arizona, United States of America
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Phoenix, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Peter Canoll
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Alexander R. A. Anderson
- Integrated Mathematical Oncology, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, Florida, United States of America
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Moench R, Grimmig T, Kannen V, Tripathi S, Faber M, Moll EM, Chandraker A, Lissner R, Germer CT, Waaga-Gasser AM, Gasser M. Exclusive inhibition of PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling is not sufficient to prevent PDGF-mediated effects on glycolysis and proliferation in colorectal cancer. Oncotarget 2018; 7:68749-68767. [PMID: 27626684 PMCID: PMC5356587 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.11899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2016] [Accepted: 08/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) and signaling via its receptors plays a crucial role in tumor cell proliferation and thus may represent an attractive target besides VEGF/EGFR-based antibody therapies. In this study we analyzed the influence of PDGF in colorectal cancer. PDGF was expressed intensively in early and even more intensively in late stage primary CRCs. Like VEGF, PDGF enhanced human colon cancer proliferation, and increased oxidative glycolytic activity, and activated HIF1α and c-Myc in vitro. PDGF activated the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway while leaving MAPK signaling untouched. Further dissection showed that inhibition of Akt strongly impeded cancer cell growth while inhibition of PI3K did not. MAPK analysis suggested an inhibitory crosstalk between both pathways, thus explaining the different effects of the Akt and PI3K inhibitors on cancer cell proliferation. PDGF stimulates colon cancer cell proliferation, and prevents inhibitor induced apoptosis, resulting in tumor growth. Therefore inhibition of PDGF signaling seems to be a promising target in colorectal cancer therapy. However, due to the multifaceted nature of the intracellular PDGF signaling, careful intervention strategies are needed when looking into specific signaling pathways like PI3K/Akt/mTOR and MAPK.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romana Moench
- Department of Surgery I, Molecular Oncology and Immunology, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Tanja Grimmig
- Department of Surgery I, Molecular Oncology and Immunology, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Vinicius Kannen
- Ribeirao Preto Pharmaceutical Sciences School, Department of Toxicology, Bromatology, and Clinical Analysis, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Sudipta Tripathi
- Brigham and Women's Hospital, Transplant Research Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Marc Faber
- Department of Surgery I, Molecular Oncology and Immunology, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Eva-Maria Moll
- Department of Surgery I, Molecular Oncology and Immunology, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Anil Chandraker
- Brigham and Women's Hospital, Transplant Research Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Reinhard Lissner
- Department of Surgery I, Molecular Oncology and Immunology, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | | | - Ana Maria Waaga-Gasser
- Department of Surgery I, Molecular Oncology and Immunology, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany.,Brigham and Women's Hospital, Transplant Research Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Martin Gasser
- Department of Surgery I, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
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Hashemnia SMR, Atari-Hajipirloo S, Roshan- Milani S, Valizadeh N, Mahabadi S, Kheradmand F. Imatinib alters cell viability but not growth factors levels in TM4 Sertoli cells. Int J Reprod Biomed 2016. [DOI: 10.29252/ijrm.14.9.577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
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10
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Imatinib alters cell viability but not growth factors levels in TM4 Sertoli cells. Int J Reprod Biomed 2016; 14:577-582. [PMID: 27738659 PMCID: PMC5054294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The anticancer agent imatinib (IM) is a small molecular analog of ATP that inhibits tyrosine kinase activity of platelet derived growth factors (PDGFs) and stem cell factor (SCF) receptor in cancer cells. However these factors have a key role in regulating growth and development of normal Sertoli, Leydig and germ cells. OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to determine cell viability, PDGF and SCF levels in mouse normal Sertoli cells exposed to IM. MATERIALS AND METHODS In this experimental study, the mouse TM4 Sertoli cells were treated with 0, 2.5, 5, 10 and 20 μM IM for 2, 4 or 6 days. The cell viability and growth factors levels were assessed by MTT and ELISA methods, respectively. For statistical analysis, One-Way ANOVA was performed. RESULTS IM showed significant decrease in Sertoli cell viability compared to control group (p=0.001). However, IM increased PDGF and SCF level insignificantly (p>0.05). CONCLUSION Results suggested that IM treatment induced a dose dependent reduction of cell viability in Sertoli cells. It seems that treatment with this anticancer drug is involved in the fertility process. Further studies are needed to evaluate the role of PDGF and SCF in this cell.
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11
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Xu Y, Liu J, He M, Liu R, Belegu V, Dai P, Liu W, Wang W, Xia QJ, Shang FF, Luo CZ, Zhou X, Liu S, McDonald J, Liu J, Zuo YX, Liu F, Wang TH. Mechanisms of PDGF siRNA-mediated inhibition of bone cancer pain in the spinal cord. Sci Rep 2016; 6:27512. [PMID: 27282805 PMCID: PMC4901320 DOI: 10.1038/srep27512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2014] [Accepted: 05/10/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Patients with tumors that metastasize to bone frequently suffer from debilitating pain, and effective therapies for treating bone cancer are lacking. This study employed a novel strategy in which herpes simplex virus (HSV) carrying a small interfering RNA (siRNA) targeting platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) was used to alleviate bone cancer pain. HSV carrying PDGF siRNA was established and intrathecally injected into the cavum subarachnoidale of animals suffering from bone cancer pain and animals in the negative group. Sensory function was assessed by measuring thermal and mechanical hyperalgesia. The mechanism by which PDGF regulates pain was also investigated by comparing the differential expression of pPDGFRα/β and phosphorylated ERK and AKT. Thermal and mechanical hyperalgesia developed in the rats with bone cancer pain, and these effects were accompanied by bone destruction in the tibia. Intrathecal injection of PDGF siRNA and morphine reversed thermal and mechanical hyperalgesia in rats with bone cancer pain. In addition, we observed attenuated astrocyte hypertrophy, down-regulated pPDGFRα/β levels, reduced levels of the neurochemical SP, a reduction in CGRP fibers and changes in pERK/ERK and pAKT/AKT ratios. These results demonstrate that PDGF siRNA can effectively treat pain induced by bone cancer by blocking the AKT-ERK signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Xu
- Institute of Neurological Disease, Department of Anesthesiology and Translation Neuroscience Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China
| | - Jia Liu
- Institute of Neuroscience, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650031, PR China
| | - Mu He
- Department of Neurosurgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China
| | - Ran Liu
- Institute of Neurological Disease, Department of Anesthesiology and Translation Neuroscience Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China
| | - Visar Belegu
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA, International Center for Spinal Cord Injury, Hugo W. Moser Research Institute at Kennedy Krieger Inc., Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Ping Dai
- Department of Neurosurgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China
| | - Wei Liu
- Institute of Neurological Disease, Department of Anesthesiology and Translation Neuroscience Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China
| | - Wei Wang
- Institute of Neurological Disease, Department of Anesthesiology and Translation Neuroscience Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China
| | - Qing-Jie Xia
- Institute of Neurological Disease, Department of Anesthesiology and Translation Neuroscience Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China
| | - Fei-Fei Shang
- Institute of Neurological Disease, Department of Anesthesiology and Translation Neuroscience Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China
| | - Chao-Zhi Luo
- Institute of Neurological Disease, Department of Anesthesiology and Translation Neuroscience Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China
| | - Xue Zhou
- Department of Histology, Embryology and Neurobiology, West China School of Preclinical and Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Su Liu
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA, International Center for Spinal Cord Injury, Hugo W. Moser Research Institute at Kennedy Krieger Inc., Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - JohnW. McDonald
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA, International Center for Spinal Cord Injury, Hugo W. Moser Research Institute at Kennedy Krieger Inc., Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jin Liu
- Institute of Neurological Disease, Department of Anesthesiology and Translation Neuroscience Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China
| | - Yun-Xia Zuo
- Institute of Neurological Disease, Department of Anesthesiology and Translation Neuroscience Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China
| | - Fei Liu
- Institute of Neurological Disease, Department of Anesthesiology and Translation Neuroscience Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China
| | - Ting-Hua Wang
- Institute of Neurological Disease, Department of Anesthesiology and Translation Neuroscience Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China
- Institute of Neuroscience, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650031, PR China
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12
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Wang M, Liu Y, Zou J, Yang R, Xuan F, Wang Y, Gao N, Cui H. Transcriptional co-activator TAZ sustains proliferation and tumorigenicity of neuroblastoma by targeting CTGF and PDGF-β. Oncotarget 2016; 6:9517-30. [PMID: 25940705 PMCID: PMC4496235 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.3367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/1969] [Accepted: 02/11/2015] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuroblastoma is a common childhood malignant tumor originated from the neural crest-derived sympathetic nervous system. A crucial event in the pathogenesis of neuroblastoma is to promote proliferation of neuroblasts, which is closely related to poor survival. However, mechanisms for regulation of cell proliferation and tumorigenicity in neuroblastoma are not well understood. Here, we report that overexpression of TAZ in neuroblastoma BE(2)-C cells causes increases in cell proliferation, self renewal and colony formation, which was restored back to its original levels by knockdown of TAZ in TAZ-overexpression cells. Inhibition of endogenous TAZ attenuated cell proliferation, colony formation and tumor development in neuroblastoma SK-N-AS cell, which could be rescued by re-introduction of TAZ into TAZ-knockdown cells. In addition, we found that overexpressing TAZ-mediated induction of CTGF and PDGF-β expression, cell proliferation and colony formation were inhibited by knocking down CTGF and PDGF-β with siRNA in TAZ-overexpressing cell. Overall, our findings suggested that TAZ plays an essential role in regulating cell proliferation and tumorigenesis in neuroblastoma cells. Thus, TAZ seems to be a novel and promising target for the treatment of neuroblastoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yang Liu
- Department of Respiration, the Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China.,Cardiovascular Department, Second Affiliated Hospital of University of South China, Hengyang, China
| | - Jiahua Zou
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Rui Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Fan Xuan
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yi Wang
- Cardiovascular Department, Second Affiliated Hospital of University of South China, Hengyang, China
| | - Ning Gao
- Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Hongjuan Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
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13
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Kheradmand F, Hashemnia SMR, Valizadeh N, Roshan-Milani S. The Effects of Imatinib Mesylate on Cellular Viability, Platelet Derived Growth Factor and Stem Cell Factor in Mouse Testicular Normal Leydig Cells. J Reprod Infertil 2016; 17:82-7. [PMID: 27141462 PMCID: PMC4842238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Growth factors play an essential role in the development of tumor and normal cells like testicular leydig cells. Treatment of cancer with anti-cancer agents like imatinib mesylate may interfere with normal leydig cell activity, growth and fertility through failure in growth factors' production or their signaling pathways. The purpose of the study was to determine cellular viability and the levels of, platelet derived growth factor (PDGF) and stem cell factor (SCF) in normal mouse leydig cells exposed to imatinib, and addressing the effect of imatinib on fertility potential. METHODS The mouse TM3 leydig cells were treated with 0 (control), 2.5, 5, 10 and 20 μM imatinib for 2, 4 and 6 days. Each experiment was repeated three times (15 experiments in each day).The cellular viability and growth factors levels were assessed by MTT and ELISA methods, respectively. For statistical analysis, one-way ANOVA with Tukey's post hoc and Kruskal-Wallis test were performed. A p-value less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. RESULTS With increasing drug concentration, cellular viability decreased significantly (p<0.05) and in contrast, PDGF levels increased (p<0.05). Different imatinib concentrations had no significant effect on SCF level. Increasing the duration of treatment from 2 to 6 days had no obvious effect on cellular viability, PDGF and SCF levels. CONCLUSION Imatinib may reduce fertility potential especially at higher concentrations in patients treated with this drug by decreasing cellular viability. The effect of imatinib on leydig cells is associated with PDGF stimulation. Of course future studies can be helpful in exploring the long term effects of this drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatemeh Kheradmand
- Department of Biochemistry, Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran
| | | | - Nasim Valizadeh
- Hematology-Oncology and Stem Cell Transplantation Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Shiva Roshan-Milani
- Department of Physiology, Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran,Corresponding Author: Shiva Roshan-Milani, Department of Physiology, Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Urmia University of Medical Sciences-Pardis Nazloo-11th Km of Sero (Nazloo) Road, Urmia, Iran, E-mail:
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14
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Lobo MR, Wang X, Gillespie GY, Woltjer RL, Pike MM. Combined efficacy of cediranib and quinacrine in glioma is enhanced by hypoxia and causally linked to autophagic vacuole accumulation. PLoS One 2014; 9:e114110. [PMID: 25490024 PMCID: PMC4260788 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0114110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2014] [Accepted: 11/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We have previously reported that the in vivo anti-glioma efficacy of the anti-angiogenic receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor cediranib is substantially enhanced via combination with the late-stage autophagy inhibitor quinacrine. The current study investigates the role of hypoxia and autophagy in combined cediranib/quinacrine efficacy. EF5 immunostaining revealed a prevalence of hypoxia in mouse intracranial 4C8 glioma, consistent with high-grade glioma. MTS cell viability assays using 4C8 glioma cells revealed that hypoxia potentiated the efficacy of combined cediranib/quinacrine: cell viability reductions induced by 1 µM cediranib +2.5 µM quinacrine were 78±7% (hypoxia) vs. 31±3% (normoxia), p<0.05. Apoptosis was markedly increased for cediranib/quinacrine/hypoxia versus all other groups. Autophagic vacuole biomarker LC3-II increased robustly in response to cediranib, quinacrine, or hypoxia. Combined cediranib/quinacrine increased LC3-II further, with the largest increases occurring with combined cediranib/quinacrine/hypoxia. Early stage autophagy inhibitor 3-MA prevented LC3-II accumulation with combined cediranib/quinacrine/hypoxia and substantially attenuated the associated reduction in cell viability. Combined efficacy of cediranib with bafilomycin A1, another late-stage autophagy inhibitor, was additive but lacked substantial potentiation by hypoxia. Substantially lower LC3-II accumulation was observed with bafilomycin A1 in comparison to quinacrine. Cediranib and quinacrine each strongly inhibited Akt phosphoryation, while bafilomycin A1 had no effect. Our results provide compelling evidence that autophagic vacuole accumulation plays a causal role in the anti-glioma cytotoxic efficacy of combined cediranib/quinacrine. Such accumulation is likely related to stimulation of autophagosome induction by hypoxia, which is prevalent in the glioma tumor microenvironment, as well as Akt signaling inhibition from both cediranib and quinacrine. Quinacrine's unique ability to inhibit both Akt and autophagic vacuole degradation may enhance its ability to drive cytotoxic autophagic vacuole accumulation. These findings provide a rationale for a clinical evaluation of combined cediranib/quinacrine therapy for malignant glioma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Merryl R. Lobo
- Advanced Imaging Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon, United States of America
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Xiaoyan Wang
- Department of Molecular and Medical Genetics at Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon, United States of America
| | - G. Yancey Gillespie
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Randall L. Woltjer
- Department of Pathology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Martin M. Pike
- Advanced Imaging Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon, United States of America
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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15
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Abstract
The platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) family of mitogens exerts vital functions during embryonal development, e.g. in the central nervous system, where PDGF drives the proliferation of oligodendrocyte precursors. PDGF and PDGF receptors are co-expressed in human glioblastoma (GBM). Whether an aberrant activation of the PDGF receptor pathway is a driving force in glioma development has remained an open question. In experimental animals, overexpression of PDGF has convincingly been shown to induce tumors, both in wild-type animals (marmoset, rat, mouse) and in mice with targeted deletions of suppressor genes, e.g. Tp53 or Ink4A. Targeting the PDGF receptor in tumor-bearing mice leads to growth inhibition and reversion of the transformed phenotype. Findings of PDGF receptor amplification or mutations in human GBM are strong indicators of a causative role of the PDGF receptor pathway. However, clinical trials using PDGF receptor antagonists have been disappointing. In conclusion, a PDGF receptor profile may be a biomarker for a subgroup of GBM originating from a PDGF receptor-responsive cell. Although compelling experimental and clinical evidence supports the notion that the PDGF receptor pathway is a driver in GBM, formal proof is still missing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bengt Westermark
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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16
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Zhou Y, Jin G, Mi R, Dong C, Zhang J, Liu F. The methylation status of the platelet-derived growth factor-B gene promoter and its regulation of cellular proliferation following folate treatment in human glioma cells. Brain Res 2014; 1556:57-66. [PMID: 24502980 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2014.01.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2013] [Revised: 01/21/2014] [Accepted: 01/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Platelet-derived growth factor-B (PDGF-B) is a growth factor that regulates cell migration, proliferation, and differentiation, and is involved in several physical and pathological processes. The overexpression of PDGF-B in glioma surgical samples revealed its effect on tumorigenesis. In this study, we determined that the expression of PDGF-B in 54 glioma samples varied among different grades and was correlated with the cell proliferation marker, Ki-67. Using pyrosequencing, we quantitatively assessed PDGF-B gene methylation levels and determined that hypomethylation promotes increased expression of PDGF-B in higher grade gliomas. Furthermore, we treated two glioma cell lines with a demethylating agent (5-aza-2'-deoxycitidine, 5-aza-dC) or a remethylating agent (folate) to alter the methylation status of PDGF-B. The epigenetic regulation of the PDGF-B gene not only modulated the expression levels of PDGF-B but also affected the cellular proliferation induced by TGFβ-Smad activity and the PDGF-B peptide itself. Our work showed the importance of the methylation status of the PDGF-B gene promoter, and suggests that the epigenetic regulation of the PDGF-B gene may serve as a potential therapeutic target for the inhibition of glioma proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiqiang Zhou
- Brain Tumor Research Center, Beijing Neurosurgical Institute, Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital affiliated to Capital Medical University, Beijing 100050, PR China
| | - Guishan Jin
- Brain Tumor Research Center, Beijing Neurosurgical Institute, Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital affiliated to Capital Medical University, Beijing 100050, PR China
| | - Ruifang Mi
- Brain Tumor Research Center, Beijing Neurosurgical Institute, Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital affiliated to Capital Medical University, Beijing 100050, PR China
| | - Chengyuan Dong
- Brain Tumor Research Center, Beijing Neurosurgical Institute, Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital affiliated to Capital Medical University, Beijing 100050, PR China
| | - Jin Zhang
- Brain Tumor Research Center, Beijing Neurosurgical Institute, Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital affiliated to Capital Medical University, Beijing 100050, PR China
| | - Fusheng Liu
- Brain Tumor Research Center, Beijing Neurosurgical Institute, Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital affiliated to Capital Medical University, Beijing 100050, PR China.
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17
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Abstract
Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) isoforms are important mitogens for different types of mesenchymal cells, which have important functions during the embryonal development and in the adult during wound healing and tissue homeostasis. In tumors, PDGF isoforms are often over-expressed and contribute to the growth of both normal and malignant cells. This review focuses on tumors expressing PDGF isoforms together with their tyrosine kinase receptors, thus resulting in autocrine stimulation of growth and survival. Patients with such tumors could benefit from treatment with inhibitors of either PDGF or PDGF receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl-Henrik Heldin
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Uppsala University, BMC, Box 595, S-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
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18
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Abstract
The slow development of effective treatment of glioblastoma is contrasted by the rapidly advancing research on the molecular mechanisms underlying the disease. Amplification and overexpression of receptor tyrosine kinases, particularly EGFR and PDGFRA, are complemented by mutations in the PI3K, RB1, and p53 signaling pathways. In addition to finding effective means to target these pathways, we may take advantage of the recent understanding of the hierarchical structure of tumor cell populations, where the progressive expansion of the tumor relies on a minor subpopulation of glioma stem cells, or glioma-initiating cells. Finding ways to reprogram these cells and block their self-renewal is one of the most important topics for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bengt Westermark
- Uppsala University, Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Rudbeck Laboratory, SE-751 85 Uppsala, Sweden
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