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Stuckel AJ, Zeng S, Lyu Z, Zhang W, Zhang X, Dougherty U, Mustafi R, Khare T, Zhang Q, Joshi T, Bissonnette M, Khare S. Sprouty4 is epigenetically upregulated in human colorectal cancer. Epigenetics 2023; 18:2145068. [PMID: 36384366 PMCID: PMC9980603 DOI: 10.1080/15592294.2022.2145068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Sprouty4 (SPRY4) has been frequently reported as a tumor suppressor and is therefore downregulated in various cancers. For the first time, we report that SPRY4 is epigenetically upregulated in colorectal cancer (CRC). In this study, we explored DNA methylation and hydroxymethylation levels of SPRY4 in CRC cells and patient samples and correlated these findings with mRNA and protein expression levels. Three loci within the promoter region of SPRY4 were evaluated for 5mC levels in CRC using the combined bisulfite restriction analysis. In addition, hydroxymethylation levels within SPRY4 were measured in CRC patients. Lastly, DNA methylation and mRNA expression data were extracted from CRC patients in multiple high-throughput data repositories like Gene Expression Omnibus and The Cancer Genome Atlas. Combined in vitro and in silico analysis of promoter methylation levels of SPRY4 clearly demonstrates that the distal promoter region undergoes hypomethylation in CRC patients and is associated with increased expression. Moreover, a decrease in gene body hydroxymethylation and an increase in gene body methylation within the coding region of SPRY4 were found in CRC patients and correlated with increased expression. SPRY4 is epigenetically upregulated in CRC by promoter hypomethylation and hypermethylation within the gene body that warrants future investigation of atypical roles of this established tumor suppressor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexei J. Stuckel
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, 65212, USA
| | - Shuai Zeng
- Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, 65201, USA,Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, 65201, USA
| | - Zhen Lyu
- Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, 65201, USA,Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, 65201, USA
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Preventive Medicine and the Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, 60611, USA
| | - Xu Zhang
- Department of Medicine, University of Illinois, Chicago, Illinois, 60607, USA
| | - Urszula Dougherty
- Department of Medicine, Section of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition; the University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, 60637, USA
| | - Reba Mustafi
- Department of Medicine, Section of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition; the University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, 60637, USA
| | - Tripti Khare
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, 65212, USA
| | - Qiong Zhang
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, 65212, USA
| | - Trupti Joshi
- Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, 65201, USA,Institute for Data Science and Informatics, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, 65211, USA,Department of Health Management and Informatics; School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, 65212, USA
| | - Marc Bissonnette
- Department of Medicine, Section of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition; the University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, 60637, USA
| | - Sharad Khare
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, 65212, USA,Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans’ Hospital, Columbia, Missouri, 65201, USA,CONTACT Sharad Khare Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, 65212, USA
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Tetik Vardarlı A, Ozgur S, Goksel T, Korba K, Karakus HS, Asık A, Pelit L, Gunduz C. Conversion of specific lncRNAs to biomarkers in exhaled breath condensate samples of patients with advanced stage non-small-cell lung cancer. Front Genet 2023; 14:1200262. [PMID: 37424727 PMCID: PMC10324032 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2023.1200262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Objectives: Lung cancer (LC) is one of the most prevalent cancers with the highest fatality rate worldwide. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are being considered potential new molecular targets for early diagnosis, follow-up, and individual treatment decisions in LC. Therefore, this study evaluated whether lncRNA expression levels obtained from exhaled breath condensate (EBC) samples play a role in the occurrence of metastasis in the diagnosis and follow-up of patients with advanced lung adenocarcinoma (LA). Methods: A total of 40 patients with advanced primary LA and 20 healthy controls participated in the study. EBC samples were collected from patients (during diagnosis and follow-up) and healthy individuals for molecular analysis. Liquid biopsy samples were also randomly obtained from 10 patients with LA and 10 healthy people. The expression of lncRNA genes, such as MALAT1, HOTAIR, PVT1, NEAT1, ANRIL, and SPRY4-IT1 was analyzed using cfRNA extracted from all clinical samples. Results: In the diagnosis and follow-up of patients with LA, lncRNA HOTAIR (5-fold), PVT1 (7.9-fold), and NEAT1 (12.8-fold), PVT1 (6.8-fold), MALAT1 (8.4-fold) expression levels were significantly higher than those in healthy controls, respectively. Additionally, the distinct lncRNA expression profiles identified in EBC samples imply that decreased ANRIL-NEAT1 and increased ANRIL gene expression levels can be used as biomarkers to predict the development of bone and lung metastases, respectively. Conclusion: EBC is an innovative, easily reproducible approach for predicting the development of metastases, molecular diagnosis, and follow-up of LC. EBC has shown potential in elucidating the molecular structure of LC, monitoring changes, and discovering novel biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aslı Tetik Vardarlı
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Ege University, Izmir, Türkiye
- EgeSAM-Ege University Translational Pulmonary Research Center, Izmir, Türkiye
| | - Su Ozgur
- EgeSAM-Ege University Translational Pulmonary Research Center, Izmir, Türkiye
- Regional Hub for Cancer Registration in Northern Africa, Central and Western Asia, WHO/IARC-GICR, Izmir, Türkiye
| | - Tuncay Goksel
- EgeSAM-Ege University Translational Pulmonary Research Center, Izmir, Türkiye
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Ege University, Izmir, Türkiye
| | - Korcan Korba
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ege University, Izmir, Türkiye
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Mugla Sıtkı Kocman University, Mugla, Türkiye
| | - Hardar Soydaner Karakus
- EgeSAM-Ege University Translational Pulmonary Research Center, Izmir, Türkiye
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Ege University, Izmir, Türkiye
| | - Aycan Asık
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Mugla Sıtkı Kocman University, Mugla, Türkiye
| | - Levent Pelit
- EgeSAM-Ege University Translational Pulmonary Research Center, Izmir, Türkiye
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Ege University, Izmir, Türkiye
| | - Cumhur Gunduz
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Ege University, Izmir, Türkiye
- EgeSAM-Ege University Translational Pulmonary Research Center, Izmir, Türkiye
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Shakked A, Petrover Z, Aharonov A, Ghiringhelli M, Umansky KB, Kain D, Elkahal J, Divinsky Y, Nguyen PD, Miyara S, Friedlander G, Savidor A, Zhang L, Perez DE, Sarig R, Lendengolts D, Bueno-Levy H, Kastan N, Levin Y, Bakkers J, Gepstein L, Tzahor E. Redifferentiated cardiomyocytes retain residual dedifferentiation signatures and are protected against ischemic injury. NATURE CARDIOVASCULAR RESEARCH 2023; 2:383-398. [PMID: 37974970 PMCID: PMC10653068 DOI: 10.1038/s44161-023-00250-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
Cardiomyocyte proliferation and dedifferentiation have fueled the field of regenerative cardiology in recent years, whereas the reverse process of redifferentiation remains largely unexplored. Redifferentiation is characterized by the restoration of function lost during dedifferentiation. Previously, we showed that ERBB2-mediated heart regeneration has these two distinct phases: transient dedifferentiation and redifferentiation. Here we survey the temporal transcriptomic and proteomic landscape of dedifferentiation-redifferentiation in adult mouse hearts and reveal that well-characterized dedifferentiation features largely return to normal, although elements of residual dedifferentiation remain, even after the contractile function is restored. These hearts appear rejuvenated and show robust resistance to ischemic injury, even 5 months after redifferentiation initiation. Cardiomyocyte redifferentiation is driven by negative feedback signaling and requires LATS1/2 Hippo pathway activity. Our data reveal the importance of cardiomyocyte redifferentiation in functional restoration during regeneration but also protection against future insult, in what could lead to a potential prophylactic treatment against ischemic heart disease for at-risk patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avraham Shakked
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Zachary Petrover
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Alla Aharonov
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Matteo Ghiringhelli
- Sohnis Research Laboratory for Cardiac Electrophysiology and Regenerative Medicine Rappaport Faculty of Medicine and Research Institute, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Kfir-Baruch Umansky
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - David Kain
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Jacob Elkahal
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Yalin Divinsky
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Phong Dang Nguyen
- Hubrecht Institute-KNAW and University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Shoval Miyara
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Gilgi Friedlander
- Mantoux Bioinformatics Institute of the Nancy and Stephen Grand Israel National Center for Personalized Medicine, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Alon Savidor
- De Botton Protein Profiling Institute of the Nancy and Stephen Grand Israel National Center for Personalized Medicine, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Lingling Zhang
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Dahlia E. Perez
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Rachel Sarig
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Daria Lendengolts
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Hanna Bueno-Levy
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Nathaniel Kastan
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Laboratory of Sensory Neuroscience, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Yishai Levin
- De Botton Protein Profiling Institute of the Nancy and Stephen Grand Israel National Center for Personalized Medicine, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Jeroen Bakkers
- Hubrecht Institute-KNAW and University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Lior Gepstein
- Sohnis Research Laboratory for Cardiac Electrophysiology and Regenerative Medicine Rappaport Faculty of Medicine and Research Institute, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Eldad Tzahor
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
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Liao PH, Chuang FH, Wang YY, Wang WC, Su CW, Hsu CW, Yuan SS, Chen YK. Sprouty 4 expression in human oral squamous cell carcinogenesis. J Dent Sci 2023; 18:781-790. [PMID: 37021228 PMCID: PMC10068491 DOI: 10.1016/j.jds.2023.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Revised: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background/purpose Reviewing literature, sprouty 4 (SPRY4) has not been studied in human oral squamous cell carcinomas (OSCCs). The study aimed to examine SPRY4 expression in human oral squamous cell carcinogenesis. Materials and methods A total of 95 OSCCs, 10 OPMDs with malignant transformation (MT), 17 OPMDs without MT, and six normal oral mucosa (NOM) samples were recruited for immunohistochemical staining; three OSCC tissues with normal tissue counterpart NOM were employed for Western blotting. Three human oral cancer cell lines (OCCLs), an oral precancer cell line (dysplastic oral keratinocyte, DOK), and a primary culture of normal oral keratinocytes (HOK) were used for Western blotting; OCCLs and HOK were employed for real-time quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. OCCLs were evaluated in terms of proliferation, migration, and invasion assays. Results SPRY4 protein expression was significantly increased in OSCCs compared with NOM. Protein and mRNA SPRY4 expression in OCCLs were significantly elevated compared with HOK. Significant increases in the degrees of proliferation, migration, and invasion were noted in OCCLs with SPRY4 siRNA transfection compared with those without transfection. SPRY4 protein level was increased in OPMD with MT compared to OPMD without MT. SPRY4 protein was significant increase in DOK in comparison with HOK. SPRY4 protein expression was significantly increased from NOM and OPMD without MT to OSCC. SPRY4 protein expression in OCCLs was significantly enhanced compared with DOK and HOK respectively. Conclusion Our results indicate that SPRY4 expression is possibly involved in human oral squamous cell carcinogenesis.
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Tian Y, Fu X, Li Q, Wang Y, Fan D, Zhou Q, Kuang W, Shen L. MicroRNA‑181 serves an oncogenic role in breast cancer via the inhibition of SPRY4. Mol Med Rep 2018; 18:5603-5613. [PMID: 30365052 PMCID: PMC6236310 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2018.9572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2017] [Accepted: 09/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Numerous microRNAs (miRs) have been implicated in breast cancer; however, the molecular mechanism is not fully understood. The present study examined the function and regulatory mechanism of miR‑181 in breast cancer. Reverse transcription‑quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blot analysis were used to examine the RNA and protein expression. MTT assay, wound healing assay and transwell assay were conducted to study cell proliferation, migration and invasion. Luciferase reporter gene assay was used to confirm targeting relationship. The results suggested that the miR‑181 expression levels were significantly higher in breast cancer cell lines and clinical tissue samples. The increased expression of miR‑181 was markedly associated with higher clinical stage and lymph node metastasis. The patients with high miR‑181 expression demonstrated worse prognosis compared with those with a low expression of miR‑181. Small interfering RNA‑induced miR‑181 downregulation significantly inhibited breast cancer cell proliferation, migration and invasion in vitro, and tumor growth in vivo. Protein sprouty homolog 4 (SPRY4), downregulated in breast cancer tissues and cell lines, was observed to be a novel target gene of miR‑181. Downregulation of SPRY4 was significantly associated with breast cancer progression in addition to poor prognosis. Knockdown of SPRY4 rescued the inhibitory effects of miR‑181 downregulation on the malignant phenotypes of breast cancer cells. Thus, the present study demonstrated that miR‑181 serves a promoting role in breast cancer at least in part through the inhibition of SPRY4 expression. The present results expand the understanding of the miR‑181/SPRY4 axis' function during for the malignant progression of breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yifu Tian
- Department of Pathology, Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, P.R. China
| | - Xiaodan Fu
- Department of Pathology, Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, P.R. China
| | - Qingling Li
- Department of Pathology, Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, P.R. China
| | - Ying Wang
- Department of Oncology, Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, P.R. China
| | - Dan Fan
- Department of Oncology, Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, P.R. China
| | - Qin Zhou
- Department of Oncology, Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, P.R. China
| | - Weilu Kuang
- Department of Oncology, Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, P.R. China
| | - Liangfang Shen
- Department of Oncology, Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, P.R. China
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Li J, Chen Y, Chen Z, He A, Xie H, Zhang Q, Cai Z, Liu Y, Huang W. SPRY4-IT1: A novel oncogenic long non-coding RNA in human cancers. Tumour Biol 2017; 39:1010428317711406. [PMID: 28651500 DOI: 10.1177/1010428317711406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Long non-coding RNAs are classified as a kind of RNA, which are longer than 200 nucleotides in length and cannot be translated into proteins. Multiple studies have demonstrated that long non-coding RNAs are involved in various cellular processes, including proliferation, differentiation, cell death, and metastasis. Among numerous long non-coding RNAs, we focus on Sprouty4-Intron 1 (SPRY4-IT1), a well-known long non-coding RNA that is overexpressed in various kinds of tumor tissues and cell lines. Accumulating evidences show that SPRY4-IT1 was dysregulated in various cancers, including melanoma, breast cancer, esophageal squamous cell carcinoma, non-small cell lung cancer, gastric cancer, colon cancer, and hepatocellular carcinoma, and amplification of SPRY4-IT1 was associated with different clinicopathological features of cancer patients. Importantly, SPRY4-IT1 exerts important roles in tumor progression and metastasis. However, detailed molecular mechanisms of SPRY4-IT1 in cancer progression and metastasis were poorly understood. In this review, we have focused on the characteristics of SPRY4-IT1 and illustrated the biological function and mechanism of SPRY4-IT1 in cancer development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianfa Li
- 1 Key Laboratory of Medical Reprogramming Technology, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, People's Republic of China
- 2 Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, People's Republic of China
| | - Yincong Chen
- 2 Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhicong Chen
- 1 Key Laboratory of Medical Reprogramming Technology, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, People's Republic of China
- 2 Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, People's Republic of China
| | - Anbang He
- 2 Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, People's Republic of China
- 3 Anhui Medical University, Hefei, People's Republic of China
| | - Haibiao Xie
- 1 Key Laboratory of Medical Reprogramming Technology, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, People's Republic of China
- 2 Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiaoxiao Zhang
- 1 Key Laboratory of Medical Reprogramming Technology, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhiming Cai
- 1 Key Laboratory of Medical Reprogramming Technology, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, People's Republic of China
- 2 Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, People's Republic of China
- 3 Anhui Medical University, Hefei, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuchen Liu
- 1 Key Laboratory of Medical Reprogramming Technology, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, People's Republic of China
| | - Weiren Huang
- 1 Key Laboratory of Medical Reprogramming Technology, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, People's Republic of China
- 2 Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, People's Republic of China
- 3 Anhui Medical University, Hefei, People's Republic of China
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Quinolinic acid neurotoxicity: Differential roles of astrocytes and microglia via FGF-2-mediated signaling in redox-linked cytoskeletal changes. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2016; 1863:3001-3014. [PMID: 27663072 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2016.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2016] [Revised: 09/12/2016] [Accepted: 09/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
QUIN is a glutamate agonist playing a role in the misregulation of the cytoskeleton, which is associated with neurodegeneration in rats. In this study, we focused on microglial activation, FGF2/Erk signaling, gap junctions (GJs), inflammatory parameters and redox imbalance acting on cytoskeletal dynamics of the in QUIN-treated neural cells of rat striatum. FGF-2/Erk signaling was not altered in QUIN-treated primary astrocytes or neurons, however cytoskeleton was disrupted. In co-cultured astrocytes and neurons, QUIN-activated FGF2/Erk signaling prevented the cytoskeleton from remodeling. In mixed cultures (astrocyte, neuron, microglia), QUIN-induced FGF-2 increased level failed to activate Erk and promoted cytoskeletal destabilization. The effects of QUIN in mixed cultures involved redox imbalance upstream of Erk activation. Decreased connexin 43 (Cx43) immunocontent and functional GJs, was also coincident with disruption of the cytoskeleton in primary astrocytes and mixed cultures. We postulate that in interacting astrocytes and neurons the cytoskeleton is preserved against the insult of QUIN by activation of FGF-2/Erk signaling and proper cell-cell interaction through GJs. In mixed cultures, the FGF-2/Erk signaling is blocked by the redox imbalance associated with microglial activation and disturbed cell communication, disrupting the cytoskeleton. Thus, QUIN signal activates differential mechanisms that could stabilize or destabilize the cytoskeleton of striatal astrocytes and neurons in culture, and glial cells play a pivotal role in these responses preserving or disrupting a combination of signaling pathways and cell-cell interactions. Taken together, our findings shed light into the complex role of the active interaction of astrocytes, neurons and microglia in the neurotoxicity of QUIN.
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