1
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Şengül-İnal G, Borgen NT, Dearing E, Zachrisson HD. The double jeopardy of low family income and negative emotionality: The family stress model revisited. Dev Psychopathol 2024:1-18. [PMID: 38433556 DOI: 10.1017/s0954579424000373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/05/2024]
Abstract
The family stress model has, for decades, guided empirical work linking poverty with increased risk of child social-emotional dysfunction. The present study extends this line of work by examining whether child negative emotionality moderates associations between family income, family stress (maternal distress, parental locus of control, and relationship dissatisfaction), and later externalizing and internalizing behavior problems. In a longitudinal population-based sample (n ~ 80,000) of Norwegian children followed from birth through age five (The Norwegian Mother, Father, and Child Cohort Study; MoBa), we examined whether high (vs. moderate or low) negative emotionality families would display: (a) compounding stress (i.e., particularly strong associations between low family income and family stress), (b) diathesis-stress (i.e., particularly strong associations between family stress and behavior problems), or (c) double jeopardy (i.e., both compounding stress and diathesis-stress moderating effects). Negative emotionality significantly moderated the association between family income and behavior problems in a manner most consistent with double jeopardy. As a result, compared with children with moderate/low negative emotionality, the family income-behavior problems association was two to three times larger for those with higher negative emotionality. These findings underscore the active role children may play in family processes that link low family income with behavior problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gülbin Şengül-İnal
- Center for Research on Equality in Education, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Special Needs Education, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Nicolai Topstad Borgen
- Center for Research on Equality in Education, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Special Needs Education, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Centre for the Study of Professions, Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway
| | - Eric Dearing
- Center for Research on Equality in Education, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Special Needs Education, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Applied Developmental Psychology, Lynch School of Education and Human Development, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, USA
| | - Henrik Daae Zachrisson
- Center for Research on Equality in Education, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Special Needs Education, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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2
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Fukkink RG. Infants in Dutch daycare: Exploring fine‐grained dimensions of temperament. INFANT AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/icd.2363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ruben G. Fukkink
- Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Centre for Applied Research in Education Amsterdam University of Applied Sciences Amsterdam the Netherlands
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3
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Nystad K, Drugli MB, Lydersen S, Lekhal R, Buøen ES. Change in toddlers' cortisol activity during a year in childcare. Associations with childcare quality, child temperament, well-being and maternal education. Stress 2022; 25:156-165. [PMID: 35389301 DOI: 10.1080/10253890.2022.2048371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Elevated levels of the stress hormone cortisol have been found in toddlers in childcare. Measuring cortisol may provide an indication of children's experiences in childcare and help to adjust practices better to their needs. To the best of our knowledge, toddlers' cortisol levels in childcare have not yet been investigated longitudinally. Furthermore, it is unclear which child and childcare factors contribute to cortisol elevation in toddlers. Using linear mixed model analyses, we investigated the full-day cortisol activity (10.00 h, 15.00 h, 18.00 h) of 156 toddlers (81 female, 56 male) during a year in childcare (September, January, June). We also investigated child cortisol levels at home in January. In addition, we tested the relation between cortisol activity and changes in cortisol activity across the year and childcare quality, temperament, well-being in childcare, and maternal education. We found increasing evening cortisol levels through the year while controlling for age. Afternoon cortisol levels were stable, but above morning cortisol levels in September and January and only slightly below morning cortisol levels in June. At home in January, afternoon levels were significantly below morning levels. Higher well-being in childcare was associated with lower overall cortisol levels and less increase in evening cortisol levels through the year in childcare. Further, less active toddlers seemed to accumulate some stress during the childcare day, indicated by higher evening cortisol levels. Rising evening cortisol levels may indicate accumulating stress across the year. Results point toward childcare being demanding for toddlers and their need for consideration from caregivers and parents, also after a longer period of childcare attendance. The findings underline the importance of observing, promoting, and further researching children's well-being in childcare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin Nystad
- Regional Centre for Child and Youth Mental Health and Child Welfare, Department of Mental Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - May Britt Drugli
- Regional Centre for Child and Youth Mental Health and Child Welfare, Department of Mental Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Stian Lydersen
- Regional Centre for Child and Youth Mental Health and Child Welfare, Department of Mental Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Ratib Lekhal
- Department of Communication and Culture, Norwegian Business School, Oslo, Norway
| | - Elisabet Solheim Buøen
- Department of Communication and Culture, Norwegian Business School, Oslo, Norway
- Regional Centre for Child and Adolescent Mental Health Eastern and Southern Norway, Oslo, Norway
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4
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Tervahartiala K, Kortesluoma S, Pelto J, Ahtola A, Karlsson H, Nolvi S, Karlsson L. Children's diurnal cortisol output and temperament in two different childcare settings at 2 and 3.5 years of age. Dev Psychobiol 2021; 63 Suppl 1:e22223. [PMID: 34964496 DOI: 10.1002/dev.22223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Revised: 10/28/2021] [Accepted: 10/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Prior research suggests that child temperament may play an important role in early childhood stress regulation. We compared children's diurnal cortisol and the association between cortisol and temperament in two different childcare settings. Cortisol was measured from saliva samples over 2 days in children (N = 84) attending out-of-home childcare and in children (N = 27), who were cared for at home at the age of 3.5 years. There was no difference between the childcare groups in total diurnal cortisol. However, of the individual measurements, afternoon cortisol levels were higher in the out-of-home childcare group during their childcare day when compared with their home day. Child temperament was not associated with total diurnal cortisol. Comparison with our prior measurements showed that the association between temperamental surgency/extroversion and total diurnal cortisol diminished along with the child age from 2 to 3.5 years in both childcare settings. This may indicate that more extroverted children are physiologically more reactive to environmental stimuli when they are younger, but this association does not appear as the children develop. Our results further suggest that the afternoon hours in the out-of-home childcare may be demanding and accelerate the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activation in young children independent of their age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katja Tervahartiala
- The FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study, Turku Brain and Mind Center, Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Turku, Finland.,Centre for Population Health Research, Turku University Hospital and University of Turku, Finland
| | - Susanna Kortesluoma
- The FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study, Turku Brain and Mind Center, Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Turku, Finland.,Centre for Population Health Research, Turku University Hospital and University of Turku, Finland.,Institute of Biomedicine, University of Turku, Finland
| | - Juho Pelto
- The FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study, Turku Brain and Mind Center, Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Turku, Finland.,Centre for Population Health Research, Turku University Hospital and University of Turku, Finland
| | - Annarilla Ahtola
- Department of Psychology and Speech-Language Pathology, University of Turku, Finland
| | - Hasse Karlsson
- The FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study, Turku Brain and Mind Center, Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Turku, Finland.,Centre for Population Health Research, Turku University Hospital and University of Turku, Finland.,Department of Psychiatry, Turku University Hospital and University of Turku, Finland
| | - Saara Nolvi
- The FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study, Turku Brain and Mind Center, Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Turku, Finland.,Centre for Population Health Research, Turku University Hospital and University of Turku, Finland.,Department of Psychology and Speech-Language Pathology, University of Turku, Finland.,Charité Universitätsmedizin - Berlin, A Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Department of Medical Psychology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health (BIH), Berlin, Germany.,Turku Institute for Advanced Studies, University of Turku, Finland
| | - Linnea Karlsson
- The FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study, Turku Brain and Mind Center, Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Turku, Finland.,Centre for Population Health Research, Turku University Hospital and University of Turku, Finland.,Department of Psychiatry, Turku University Hospital and University of Turku, Finland
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5
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de Vet SM, Vrijhof CI, van der Veek SMC, Pieplenbosch JM, van Bakel HJA, Vermeer HJ. Child Care in Times of COVID-19: Predictors of Distress in Dutch Children and Parents When Re-entering Center-Based Child Care After a 2-Month Lockdown. Front Psychol 2021; 12:718898. [PMID: 34803802 PMCID: PMC8603750 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.718898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
As a consequence of the outbreak of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) child care facilities all over the world were temporarily closed to minimize the spread of the virus. In Netherlands, the first closure lasted for almost 2 months. The return to the child care center after this significant interruption was expected to be challenging, because earlier studies demonstrated that transitions into child care can be stressful for both children and their parents. The current paper retrospectively examined the distress of Dutch children (aged 0-4) and their parents during the first 2 weeks after the reopening of child care centers, and what factors accounted for individual differences in distress. In total, 694 parents filled out an online questionnaire about stress during closure and distress after the reopening of child care centers. Furthermore, questions regarding several demographic variables and child care characteristics were included, as well as questionnaires measuring child temperament, parental separation anxiety, and parental perception of the child care quality. Results showed that younger children and children with parents scoring higher on separation anxiety experienced more distress after the reopening, as reported by parents. Furthermore, children were more distressed upon return when they attended the child care center for less hours per week after the reopening, experienced less stress during closure, and grew up in a one-parent family. With regard to parental distress after the reopening, we found that parents scoring higher on separation anxiety and fear of COVID-19 experienced more distress. Moreover, parents experiencing less stress during closure and mothers were more distressed when the child returned to the child care center. Finally, concurrent child and parental distress after reopening were positively related. The results of the current study may help professional caregivers to identify which children and parents benefit from extra support when children return to the child care center after an interruption. Especially the role that parental separation anxiety played in predicting both child and parental distress deserves attention. More research is required in order to study the underlying mechanisms of these associations and to design appropriate interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanne M de Vet
- Parenting, Child Care and Development, Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Institute of Education and Child Studies, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Claudia I Vrijhof
- Parenting, Child Care and Development, Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Institute of Education and Child Studies, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Shelley M C van der Veek
- Parenting, Child Care and Development, Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Institute of Education and Child Studies, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Jane M Pieplenbosch
- Parenting, Child Care and Development, Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Institute of Education and Child Studies, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Hedwig J A van Bakel
- Department of Tranzo, Tilburg School of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Tilburg University, Tilburg, Netherlands
| | - Harriet J Vermeer
- Parenting, Child Care and Development, Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Institute of Education and Child Studies, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
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6
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Infant temperament, early-childhood parenting, and early-adolescent development: Testing alternative models of Parenting × Temperament interaction. Dev Psychopathol 2021; 34:784-795. [PMID: 33446300 DOI: 10.1017/s0954579420002096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Here we evaluate whether infant difficult temperament (6 months) functions as a vulnerability or more general plasticity factor when investigating effects of early-childhood parenting (8-42 months) on both positive and negative early-adolescent socioemotional development (age 8-11 years). Using data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC, N = 14,541) and a re-parameterized model-testing approach to distinguish alternative person × environment conceptual models, results indicated that temperament × parenting interacted in predicting externalizing (i.e., hyperactivity, conduct problems), but not other behavior (i.e., emotional symptoms, peer problems), in a (weak) differential susceptibility manner. While more and less supportive parenting predicted, respectively, fewer and more behavior problems, it did so more strongly for children who were more difficult as infants.
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7
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Tervahartiala K, Nolvi S, Kortesluoma S, Pelto J, Hyttinen S, Junttila N, Ahtola A, Karlsson H, Karlsson L. Child Temperament and Total Diurnal Cortisol in Out-of-Home Center-Based Child Care and in At-Home Parental Care. Child Dev 2020; 92:408-424. [PMID: 32797638 PMCID: PMC7891657 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The association between child temperament characteristics and total diurnal saliva cortisol in 84 children (M = 2.3 years, SD = 0.6) attending out‐of‐home, center‐based child care and 79 children (M = 2.0 years, SD = 0.5) attending at‐home parental care was examined. Saliva samples were collected during two consecutive days, that is, Sunday and Monday, with four samples taken per day. While children higher in surgency had higher total diurnal cortisol production, we did not find evidence that temperament moderated the associations between child‐care context and total diurnal cortisol. Negative affectivity and effortful control were not related to cortisol output. Our findings suggest that temperamental surgency may be associated with higher total cortisol production in early childhood across child‐care settings.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Saara Nolvi
- University of Turku.,Charité Universitätsmedizin-Berlin
| | | | | | | | - Niina Junttila
- University of Turku.,Finnish National Agency for Education
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8
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Hermes GDA, Eckermann HA, de Vos WM, de Weerth C. Does entry to center-based childcare affect gut microbial colonization in young infants? Sci Rep 2020; 10:10235. [PMID: 32581284 PMCID: PMC7314774 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-66404-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Entry to center-based childcare (CC) at three months of life can be an important challenge for infants as it includes major stressors such as long maternal separations and frequently changing caregivers. Stress and the new environment may in turn alter the composition of the gut microbiota with possible implications for future health outcomes. As part of an ongoing longitudinal study, we investigated whether CC, as compared to being cared for by the parents at home, alters the composition of the gut microbiota, while accounting for known covariates of the infant gut microbiota. Stool samples of infants who entered CC (n = 49) and control infants (n = 49) were obtained before and four weeks after CC entrance. Using Redundancy analysis, Random Forests and Bayesian linear models we found that infant gut microbiota was not affected in a uniform way by entry to CC. In line with the literature, breastfeeding, birth mode, age, and the presence of siblings were shown to significantly impact the microbial composition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerben D A Hermes
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Henrik A Eckermann
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Willem M de Vos
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Human Microbiome Research Program, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Carolina de Weerth
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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9
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Holochwost SJ, Towe-Goodman N, Rehder PD, Wang G, Mills-Koonce WR. Poverty, Caregiving, and HPA-Axis Activity in Early Childhood. DEVELOPMENTAL REVIEW 2020; 56:100898. [PMID: 32377027 PMCID: PMC7202478 DOI: 10.1016/j.dr.2020.100898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The association between poverty and the activity of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis in early childhood is well established. Both ecological and transactional theories suggest that one way in which poverty may influence children's HPA-axis activity is through its effects on parents' behaviors, and over the past three decades a substantial literature has accumulated indicating that variations in these behaviors are associated with individual differences in young children's HPA-axis activity. More recent research suggests that non-parental caregiving behaviors are associated with HPA-axis activity in early childhood as well. Here we systematically review the literature on the association between both parental and non-parental caregiving behaviors in the context of poverty and the activity of the HPA-axis in early childhood. We conclude by noting commonalities across these two literatures and their implications for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven J. Holochwost
- Corresponding author: Science of Learning Institute Johns Hopkins University, 167 Krieger Hall, 3400 North Charles Street, Baltimore, MD 21218, U.S.A. (410) 516-5983.
| | - Nissa Towe-Goodman
- Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, Sheryl-Mar North, Room 111, Campus Box 8040, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-8040, U.S.A
| | - Peter D. Rehder
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, University of North Carolina Greensboro, 319 College Avenue, 248 Stone Building, Greensboro, NC 27412, U.S.A
| | - Guan Wang
- School of Education, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, 301K Peabody Hall, CB 3500, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3500, U.S.A
| | - W. Roger Mills-Koonce
- School of Education, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, 301K Peabody Hall, CB 3500, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3500, U.S.A
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10
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Huda MN, Ahmad SM, Alam MJ, Khanam A, Afsar MNA, Wagatsuma Y, Raqib R, Stephensen CB, Laugero KD. Infant cortisol stress-response is associated with thymic function and vaccine response. Stress 2019; 22:36-43. [PMID: 29932814 PMCID: PMC6351220 DOI: 10.1080/10253890.2018.1484445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Stress can impair T cell-mediated immunity. To determine if infants with high stress responses had deficits in T-cell mediated immunity, we examined the association of pain-induced cortisol responsiveness with thymic function and vaccine responses in infants. This study was performed among 306 (male = 153 and female = 153) participants of a randomized, controlled trial examining the effect of neonatal vitamin A supplementation on immune function in Bangladesh (NCT01583972). Salivary cortisol was measured before and 20 min after a needle stick (vaccination) at 6 weeks of age. The thymic index (TI) was determined by ultrasonography at 1, 6, 10 and 15 weeks. T-cell receptor excision circle and blood T-cell concentrations were measured at 6 and 15 weeks. Responses to Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG), tetanus toxoid, hepatitis B virus and oral poliovirus vaccination were assayed at 6 and 15 weeks. Cortisol responsiveness was negatively associated with TI at all ages (p < .01) in boys only, was negatively associated with naïve helper T-cell concentrations in both sexes at both 6 (p = .0035) and 15 weeks (p = .0083), and was negatively associated with the delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) skin test response to BCG vaccination at 15 weeks (p = .034) in both sexes. Infants with a higher cortisol response to pain have differences in the T-cell compartment and a lower DTH response to vaccination. Sex differences in the immune system were seen as early as 6 weeks of age in these healthy infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Nazmul Huda
- Nutrition Department, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, U.S.A
- US Department of Agriculture, Western Human Nutrition Research Center, Davis, California, U.S.A
- Enteric and Respiratory Infections Unit, Infectious Diseases Division, icddr,b, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Shaikh M. Ahmad
- Enteric and Respiratory Infections Unit, Infectious Diseases Division, icddr,b, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Md J. Alam
- Enteric and Respiratory Infections Unit, Infectious Diseases Division, icddr,b, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Afsana Khanam
- Enteric and Respiratory Infections Unit, Infectious Diseases Division, icddr,b, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Md Nure A. Afsar
- Enteric and Respiratory Infections Unit, Infectious Diseases Division, icddr,b, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Yukiko Wagatsuma
- Department of Clinical Trial and Clinical Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Rubhana Raqib
- Enteric and Respiratory Infections Unit, Infectious Diseases Division, icddr,b, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Charles B. Stephensen
- Nutrition Department, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, U.S.A
- US Department of Agriculture, Western Human Nutrition Research Center, Davis, California, U.S.A
- To whom correspondence should be addressed: Dr. Charles B Stephensen, Immunity and Disease Prevention Research Unit, USDA Western Human Nutrition Research Center, 430 West Health Sciences Drive, Davis, CA 95616, U.S.A. Phone: +1-530-754-9266. Fax: +1-530-752-4390.
| | - Kevin D. Laugero
- Nutrition Department, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, U.S.A
- US Department of Agriculture, Western Human Nutrition Research Center, Davis, California, U.S.A
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Vermeer HJ, Groeneveld MG. Children's physiological responses to childcare. Curr Opin Psychol 2017; 15:201-206. [PMID: 28813263 DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2017] [Accepted: 03/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
This review focuses on children's physiological responses to out-of-home childcare. The finding that children's cortisol levels are higher at childcare than at home has been well-replicated. Here we summarize recent evidence examining possible correlates of elevated cortisol levels. Reviewed studies suggest that childcare quality matters, whereas group sizes and type of care do not. As for child characteristics, elevated cortisol at childcare is more pronounced in toddlers than in infants, and in inhibited and aggressive children. We discuss recent advances focusing on hair cortisol analysis and immunomarkers of stress, and suggest that there is a need for experimental and longitudinal studies to examine causal relations and possible negative long-term consequences for children's health and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harriet J Vermeer
- Centre for Child and Family Studies, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9555, 2300 RB Leiden, The Netherlands.
| | - Marleen G Groeneveld
- Centre for Child and Family Studies, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9555, 2300 RB Leiden, The Netherlands
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12
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Stoltz S, Beijers R, Smeekens S, Deković M. Diathesis stress or differential susceptibility? testing longitudinal associations between parenting, temperament, and children's problem behavior. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/sode.12237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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