Blinatumomab: a CD19/CD3 bispecific T cell engager (BiTE) with unique anti-tumor efficacy

Therapeutic antibodies in oncology: an immunopharmacological overview

The biotechnological development of monoclonal antibodies and their immunotherapeutic use in oncology have grown exponentially in the last decade, becoming the first-line therapy for some types of cancer. Their mechanism of action is based on the ability to regulate the immune system or by interacting with targets that are either overexpressed in tumor cells, released into the extracellular milieu or involved in processes that favor tumor growth. In addition, the intrinsic characteristics of each subclass of antibodies provide specific effector functions against the tumor by activating antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity, complement-dependent cytotoxicity, and antibody-dependent cellular phagocytosis, among other mechanisms. The rational design and engineering of monoclonal antibodies have improved their pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic features, thus optimizing the therapeutic regimens administered to cancer patients and improving their clinical outcomes. The selection of the immunoglobulin G subclass, modifications to its crystallizable region (Fc), and conjugation of radioactive substances or antineoplastic drugs may all improve the antitumor effects of therapeutic antibodies. This review aims to provide insights into the immunological and pharmacological aspects of therapeutic antibodies used in oncology, with a rational approach at molecular modifications that can be introduced into these biological tools, improving their efficacy in the treatment of cancer.

Polymeric PD1/PDL1 bispecific antibody enhances immune checkpoint blockade therapy

Immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapy, particularly PD1/PDL1 inhibition, has demonstrated success in bolstering durable responses in patients. However, the response rate remains below 30 %. In this study, we developed a polymeric bispecific antibody (BsAb) targeting PD1/PDL1 to enhance ICB therapy. Specifically, poly(L-glutamic acid) (PGLU) was conjugated with a double cyclic Fc binding peptide, Fc-III-4C, through condensation reactions between the -COOH group of PGLU and the -NH2 group of Fc-III-4C. This conjugate was then mixed with αPD1 and αPDL1 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) in an aqueous solution. Mechanistically, the PD1/PDL1 BsAb (BsAbαPD1+αPDL1) acts as a bridge between tumor cells and CD8+ T cells, continuously activating CD8+ T cells to a greater extent. This leads to significantly suppressed tumor growth and prolonged survival in a mouse model of colon cancer compared to treatment with either a single mAb or a mixture of free mAbs. The tumor suppression rate achieved by the BsAbαPD1+αPDL1 was 90.1 %, with a corresponding survival rate of 83.3 % after 48 days. Thus, this study underscores the effectiveness of the BsAbαPD1+αPDL1 as a synchronizing T cell engager and dual ICBs, offering theoretical guidance for clinical ICB therapy.

Mosunetuzumab for the treatment of follicular lymphoma

INTRODUCTION

Follicular lymphoma (FL) is an indolent non-Hodgkin lymphoma that shows a progressive increase in relapses and refractory in its natural history and a median survival of approximately 18-20 years. The advent of anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies has changed the FL therapeutic algorithm, with an increase in progression-free survival. T-cell-dependent bispecific antibodies (BsAbs) represent an emerging drug class against FL.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, we selected papers from the principal databases (PubMed, Medline, Medscape, ASCO, ESMO) between January 2021 and June 2024, using the keywords 'mosunetuzumab' and 'follicular lymphoma' to provide an overview of mosunetuzumab-axgb, a pioneering BsAb. Its mechanism of action, efficacy, safety, and future perspectives were analyzed.

EXPERT OPINION

Mosunetuzumab grants a directing T-cell mediated cytotoxicity and allows a step-up dosing that reduces adverse events, such as cytokine release syndrome, with promising tolerability. At the same time, it improves outcomes in the evolving landscape of FL management, even in post-CAR-T FL patients. Prognostic factors and targetable mechanisms of resistance need to be explored.

Cytokine Biopharmaceuticals with "Activity-on-Demand" for Cancer Therapy

Cytokines are small proteins that modulate the activity of the immune system. Because of their potent immunomodulatory properties, some recombinant cytokines have undergone clinical development and have gained marketing authorization for the therapy of certain forms of cancer. Recombinant cytokines are typically administered at ultralow doses, as many of them can cause substantial toxicity even at submilligram quantities. In an attempt to increase the therapeutic index, fusion proteins based on tumor-homing antibodies (also called "immunocytokines") have been considered, and some products in this class have reached late-stage clinical trials. While antibody-cytokine fusions, which preferentially localize in the neoplastic mass, can activate tumor-resident leukocytes and may be more efficacious than their nontargeted counterparts, such products typically conserve an intact cytokine activity, which may prevent escalation to curative doses. To further improve tolerability, several strategies have been conceived for the development of antibody-cytokine fusions with "activity-on-demand", acting on tumors but helping spare normal tissues from undesired toxicity. In this article, we have reviewed some of the most promising strategies, outlining their potential as well as possible limitations.

Effective treatment of relapsed/refractory CD19-positive B/T-type mixed-phenotype acute leukemia with blinatumomab: A case report

A 26-year-old man was diagnosed with B/T-type mixed-phenotype acute leukemia (MPAL-B/T) based on blasts being positive for CD19, cytoplasmic CD3, and cyCD79a, but negative for myeloperoxidase. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia-based chemotherapy was started, but the leukemia was refractory. He underwent cord blood transplantation with the conditioning regimen of total body irradiation plus cyclophosphamide and cytarabine with granulocyte-colony stimulating factor priming. Prophylaxis for graft versus host disease was performed with short-term methotrexate and cyclosporin. The leukemia relapsed in bone marrow 20 months later. At that time, he was treated with inotuzumab ozogamicin because the blasts expressed CD22 (75.4%), but this was ineffective. He was next administered blinatumomab with dexamethasone pretreatment, resulting in a complete remission (CR). He subsequently underwent human leukocyte antigen-haploidentical peripheral blood stem cell transplantation. He has still maintained a CR for 12 months. Blinatumomab might be a promising treatment and a bridge to stem cell transplantation even in relapsed/refractory CD19-expressing MPAL-B/T.

Stepping forward: T-cell redirecting bispecific antibodies in cancer therapy

T cell-redirecting bispecific antibodies are specifically designed to bind to tumor-associated antigens, thereby engaging with CD3 on the T cell receptor. This linkage between tumor cells and T cells actively triggers T cell activation and initiates targeted killing of the identified tumor cells. These antibodies have emerged as one of the most promising avenues within tumor immunotherapy. However, despite success in treating hematological malignancies, significant advancements in solid tumors have yet to be explored. In this review, we aim to address the critical challenges associated with T cell-redirecting bispecific antibodies and explore novel strategies to overcome these obstacles, with the ultimate goal of expanding the application of this therapy to include solid tumors.

T-Cell Engagers-The Structure and Functional Principle and Application in Hematological Malignancies

Recent advancements in cancer immunotherapy have made directing the cellular immune response onto cancer cells a promising strategy for the treatment of hematological malignancies. The introduction of monoclonal antibody-based (mAbs) targeted therapy has significantly improved the prognosis for hematological patients. Facing the issues of mAb-based therapies, a novel bispecific antibody (BsAb) format was developed. T-cell engagers (TCEs) are BsAbs, which simultaneously target tumor-associated antigens on tumor cells and CD3 molecules present on T-cells. This mechanism allows for the direct activation of T-cells and their anti-tumor features, ultimately resulting in the lysis of tumor cells. In 2014, the FDA approved blinatumomab, a TCE directed to CD3 and CD19 for treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Since then, numerous TCEs have been developed, allowing for treating different hematological malignancies such as acute myeloid leukemia, multiple myeloma, and non-Hodgkin lymphoma and Hodgkin lymphoma. As of November 2023, seven clinically approved TCE therapies are on the market. TCE-based therapies still have their limitations; however, improving the properties of TCEs, as well as combining TCE-based therapies with other forms of treatment, give hope to find the cures for currently terminal diseases. In this paper, we summarized the technical basis of the TCE technology, its application in hematology, and its current issues and prospects.

A Novel Dual-Fc Bispecific Antibody with Enhanced Fc Effector Function

Bispecific antibodies (BsAbs) are undergoing continued development for applications in oncology and autoimmune diseases. While increasing activity by having more than one targeting arm, most BsAb engineering employs single Fc engagement as monoclonal antibodies. Here, we designed a novel immunoglobulin gamma-1 (IgG1)-derived dual-Fc BsAb containing two Fc regions and two distinct asymmetric antigen binding arms comprising a Fab arm and another VHH domain. In conjunction with the knob-into-hole technology, dual-Fc BsAbs could be produced with a high yield and good stability. We explore how Fc engineering effects on dual-Fc constructs could boost the desired therapeutic efficacy. This new format enabled simultaneous bispecific binding to corresponding antigens. Furthermore, compared to the one-Fc control molecules, dual-Fc BsAbs were shown to increase the avidity-based binding to FcγRs to result in higher ADCC and ADCP activities by potent avidity via binding to two antigens and Fc receptors. Overall, this novel BsAb format with enhanced effector functionalities provides a new option for antibody-based immunotherapy.

T Cell Receptor-Directed Bispecific T Cell Engager Targeting MHC-Linked NY-ESO-1 for Tumor Immunotherapy

Antibody-based bispecific T cell engagers (TCEs) that redirect T cells to kill tumor cells have shown a promising therapeutic effect on hematologic malignancies. However, tumor-specific targeting is still a challenge for TCEs, impeding the development of TCEs for solid tumor therapy. The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) presents almost all intracellular peptides (including tumor-specific peptides) on the cell surface to be scanned by the TCR on T cells. With the premise of choosing optimal peptides, the final complex peptide-MHC could be the tumor-specific target for TCEs. Here, a novel TCR-directed format of a TCE targeting peptide-MHC was designed named IgG-T-TCE, which was modified from the IgG backbone and prepared in a mammalian cell expression system. The recombinant IgG-T-TCE-NY targeting NY-ESO-1157-165/HLA-A*02:01 could be generated in HEK293 cells with a glycosylated TCR and showed potency in T cell activation and redirecting T cells to specifically kill target tumor cells. We also found that the in vitro activity of IgG-T-TCE-NY could be leveraged by various anti-CD3 antibodies and Fc silencing. The IgG-T-TCE-NY efficiently inhibited tumor growth in a tumor-PBMC co-engrafted mouse model without any obvious toxicities.

Pneumocystis jirovecii Pneumonia Secondary to Blinatumomab Therapy: A Case Report

INTRODUCTION

With the increasing use of blinatumomab in relapsed or refractory B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), including minimal residual disease (MRD)-positive cases, awareness of its adverse effects has gradually improved. Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (PCP) associated with blinatumomab therapy is rare.

CASE PRESENTATION

We present a case of PCP in a patient undergoing blinatumomab therapy. A 70-year-old female diagnosed with Philadelphia-like CRLF2 overexpression B-cell precursor ALL received blinatumomab as consolidation therapy after achieving complete remission with prior induction chemotherapy. On the second day of blinatumomab infusion, she developed intermittent low-grade fever, and chest computed tomography (CT) revealed subtle infiltrates and nodules. Despite empiric trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) prophylaxis, she progressed to significant shortness of breath and type I respiratory failure, with increased lactate dehydrogenase and β-D-glucan assays. Chest CT showed diffuse ground-glass opacities with scattered small nodules. The dry cough prompted next-generation sequencing of peripheral blood, which tested positive for pneumocystis jirovecii without evidence of other pathogens. Consequently, the patient was diagnosed with PCP. The first cycle of blinatumomab had to be discontinued, and therapeutic dosages of TMP-SMX and dexamethasone were administered, resulting in full recovery and stable condition during follow-ups.

CONCLUSION

PCP is rare in B-cell precursor ALL patients receiving blinatumomab therapy but manifests with early onset and rapid disease progression. Despite prophylaxis, PCP infection cannot be ignored during blinatumomab therapy. Therefore, heightened attention is warranted when using blinatumomab therapy.

Drug-Loaded Biomimetic Carriers for Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Therapy: Advances and Perspective

Chemotherapy remains the mainstay of treatment for the lymphoma patient population, despite its relatively poor therapeutic results, high toxicity, and low specificity. With the advancement of biotechnology, the significance of drug-loading biomimetic materials in the medical field has become increasingly evident, attracting extensive attention from the scientific community and the pharmaceutical industry. Given that they can cater to the particular requirements of lymphoma patients, drug-loading biomimetic materials have recently become a potent and promising delivery approach for various applications. This review mainly reviews the recent advancements in the treatment of tumors with biological drug carrier-loaded drugs, outlines the mechanisms of lymphoma development and the diverse treatment modalities currently available, and discusses the merits and limitations of biological drug carriers. What is more, the practical application of biocarriers in tumors is explored by providing examples, and the possibility of loading such organisms with antilymphoma drugs for the treatment of lymphoma is conceived.

Myeloid and dendritic cells enhance therapeutics-induced cytokine release syndrome features in humanized BRGSF-HIS preclinical model

Objectives

Despite their efficacy, some immunotherapies have been shown to induce immune-related adverse events, including the potentially life-threatening cytokine release syndrome (CRS), calling for reliable and translational preclinical models to predict potential safety issues and investigate their rescue. Here, we tested the reliability of humanized BRGSF mice for the assessment of therapeutics-induced CRS features in preclinical settings.

Methods

BRGSF mice reconstituted with human umbilical cord blood CD34+ cells (BRGSF-CBC) were injected with anti-CD3 antibody (OKT3), anti-CD3/CD19 bispecific T-cell engager Blinatumomab, or VISTA-targeting antibody. Human myeloid and dendritic cells' contribution was investigated in hFlt3L-boosted BRGSF-CBC mice. OKT3 treatment was also tested in human PBMC-reconstituted BRGSF mice (BRGSF-PBMC). Cytokine release, immune cell distribution, and clinical signs were followed.

Results

OKT3 injection in BRGSF-CBC mice induced hallmark features of CRS, specifically inflammatory cytokines release, modifications of immune cell distribution and activation, body weight loss, and temperature drop. hFlt3L-boosted BRGSF-CBC mice displayed enhanced CRS features, revealing a significant role of myeloid and dendritic cells in this process. Clinical CRS-managing treatment Infliximab efficiently attenuated OKT3-induced toxicity. Comparison of OKT3 treatment's effect on BRGSF-CBC and BRGSF-PBMC mice showed broadened CRS features in BRGSF-CBC mice. CRS-associated features were also observed in hFlt3L-boosted BRGSF-CBC mice upon treatment with other T-cell or myeloid-targeting compounds.

Conclusions

These data show that BRGSF-CBC mice represent a relevant model for the preclinical assessment of CRS and CRS-managing therapies. They also confirm a significant role of myeloid and dendritic cells in CRS development and exhibit the versatility of this model for therapeutics-induced safety assessment.

Bispecific antibodies in indolent B-cell lymphomas

The advent of immunotherapy in lymphomas, beginning with Rituximab, have led to paradigm shifting treatments that are increasingly bringing a greater number of affected patients within the ambit of durable disease control and cure. Bispecific antibodies harness the properties of the immunoglobulin antibody structure to design molecules which, apart from engaging with the target tumour associated antigen, engage the host's T-cells to cause tumour cell death. Mosunetuzumab, an anti-CD20 directed bispecific antibody was the first to be approved in follicular lymphoma, this has now been followed by quick approvals of Glofitamab and Epcoritamab in diffuse large B-cell lymphomas. This article reviews contemporary data and ongoing studies evaluating the role of bispecific antibodies in indolent b-cell non Hodgkin lymphomas. This is an area of active research and presents many opportunities in advancing the treatment of indolent lymphomas and potentially forge a chemo-free treatment paradigm in this condition.

[Blinatumomab as bridging therapy in two children with B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia complicated by invasive fungal disease]

This article reports two cases of children with B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) complicated by invasive fungal disease (IFD) who received bridging treatment using blinatumomab. Case 1 was a 4-month-old female infant who experienced recurrent high fever and limb weakness during chemotherapy. Blood culture was negative, and next-generation sequencing (NGS) of peripheral blood, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, and cerebrospinal fluid were all negative. Chest CT and cranial MRI revealed obvious infection foci. Case 2 was a 2-year-old male patient who experienced recurrent high fever with multiple inflammatory masses during chemotherapy. Candida tropicalis was detected in peripheral blood and abscess fluid using NGS, while blood culture and imaging examinations showed no obvious abnormalities. After antifungal and blinatumomab therapy, both cases showed significant improvement in symptoms, signs, and imaging, and B-ALL remained in continuous remission. The report indicates that bridging treatment with blinatumomab in children with B-ALL complicated by IFD can rebuild the immune system and control the underlying disease in the presence of immunosuppression and severe fungal infection.

Forks in the road for CAR T and CAR NK cell cancer therapies

The advent of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy has resulted in unprecedented long-term clearance of relapse/refractory hematological malignancies in both pediatric and adult patients. However, severe toxicities, such as cytokine release syndrome and neurotoxicity, associated with CAR T cells affect therapeutic utility; and treatment efficacies for solid tumors are still not impressive. As a result, engineering strategies that modify other immune cell types, especially natural killer (NK) cells have arisen. Owing to both CAR-dependent and CAR-independent (innate immune-mediated) antitumor killing capacity, major histocompatibility complex-independent cytotoxicity, reduced risk of alloreactivity and lack of major CAR T cell toxicities, CAR NK cells constitute one of the promising next-generation CAR immune cells that are also amenable as 'off-the-shelf' therapeutics. In this Review, we compare CAR T and CAR NK cell therapies, with particular focus on immunological synapses, engineering strategies and challenges.

A PD-L1xCD3 bispecific nanobody as a novel T-cell engager in treating PD-L1 overexpression melanoma

The development of Immune checkpoint blockade(ICB) therapy and BRAF- and MEK-targeted therapies has reshaped the survival outcomes of the patients with advanced melanoma. PD-1/PD-L1 blockade was an approved strategy in melanoma treatment. Here we design a PD-L1 xCD3 nanobody as a novel bispecific T cell engager (BiTE) in treating PD-L1 overexpression melanoma. BiTE PD-L1×CD3 Nb was predicted to bind near a large acidic surface on CD3-ε similar to UCHT1-scFv antibody based on alpha-fold and molecular docking. BiTE PD-L1×CD3 Nb and anti-CD3 Nb retained the ability to activate T cells to produce TNF-α and IFN-γ in a dose-dependent manner. The IC50 value of BiTE PD-L1×CD3 Nb was 4.208μg/mL. BiTE PD-L1×CD3 Nb showed obvious cytotoxic activity on both A375WT and A375PD-L1 related to PD-L1 expression level.

Anti-CD19/CD8 bispecific T cell engager for the potential treatment of B cell malignancies

The administration of blinatumomab was accompanied by several adverse effects, including activation of regulatory T-cells and cytokine storm. The objective of this study was to produce and evaluate a novel αCD8/CD19 BiTE (αCD8/CD19) with the potency to directly target CD8+T-cells. In-silico studies were utilized for determining proper folding, receptor binding, and structural stability of αCD8/CD19 protein. Western blotting and indirect surface staining were used to evaluate the size accuracy and binding potency of the purified protein. Functionality was assessed for granzyme B production, cytotoxicity, and proliferation. TheαCD8/CD19recombinant protein was produced in the CHO-K1 cell line with a final concentration of 1.94 mg/l. The αCD8/CD19 bound to CD8+and CD19+cell lines and induced significant granzyme B production, cytotoxic activity and proliferation potential in the presence of IL-2 and tumor target cells. The maximum CD8+T-cell biological activity was observed on the 10th day with 10:1 effector-to-target ratio.

Updates on lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma classification and minimal/measurable residual disease analysis

Lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma (ALL/LBL), especially certain subtypes, continues to confer morbidity and mortality despite significant therapeutic advances. The pathologic classification of ALL/LBL, especially that of B-ALL, has recently substantially expanded with the identification of several distinct and prognostically important genetic drivers. These discoveries are reflected in both current classification systems, the World Health Organization (WHO) 5th edition and the new International Consensus Classification (ICC). In this article, novel subtypes of B-ALL are reviewed, including DUX4, MEF2D and ZNF384-rearranged B-ALL; the rare pediatric entity B-ALL with TLF3::HLF, now added to the classifications, is discussed; updates to the category of B-ALL with BCR::ABL1-like features (Ph-like B-ALL) are summarized; and emerging genetic subtypes of T-ALL are presented. The second half of the article details current approaches to minimal/measurable residual disease (MRD) detection in B-ALL and T-ALL and presents anticipated challenges to current approaches in the burgeoning era of antigen-directed immunotherapy.

Identification of Mispairing Omic Signatures in Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) Cells Producing a Tri-Specific Antibody

Monoclonal antibody-based therapy has shown efficacy against cancer, autoimmune, infectious, and inflammatory diseases. Multispecific antibodies (MsAbs), including trispecifics (tsAbs), offer enhanced therapeutic potential by targeting different epitopes. However, when co-expressed from three or more different polypeptide chains, MsAb production can lead to incorrect chain assembly and co-production of mispaired species with impaired biological activity. Moreover, mispairing carries significant challenges for downstream purification, decreasing yields and increasing the cost of bioprocess development. In this study, quantitative transcriptomics and proteomics analyses were employed to investigate which signaling pathways correlated with low and high mispairing clone signatures. Gene and protein expression profiles of Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) clones producing an tsAb were analyzed in the exponential growth and stationary (tsAb production) phase of fed-batch culture. Functional analysis revealed activated endoplasmic reticulum stress in high mispairing clones in both culture phases, while low mispairing clones exhibited expression profiles indicative of activated protein translation, as well as higher endocytosis and target protein degradation, suggesting the clearance of unfolded proteins through ubiquitin-mediated mechanisms. In addition, through transcriptomic profiling, we identified a group of genes that have the potential to be used as a biomarker panel tool for identifying high mispairing levels in the early stages of bioprocess development.

Bispecific antibodies in cancer therapy: Target selection and regulatory requirements

In recent years, the development of bispecific antibodies (bsAbs) has been rapid, with many new structures and target combinations being created. The boom in bsAbs has led to the successive issuance of industry guidance for their development in the US and China. However, there is a high degree of similarity in target selection, which could affect the development of diversity in bsAbs. This review presents a classification of various bsAbs for cancer therapy based on structure and target selection and examines the advantages of bsAbs over monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). Through database research, we have identified the preferences of available bsAbs combinations, suggesting rational target selection options and warning of potential wastage of medical resources. We have also compared the US and Chinese guidelines for bsAbs in order to provide a reference for their development.

CLN-978, a novel half-life extended CD19/CD3/HSA-specific T cell-engaging antibody construct with potent activity against B-cell malignancies with low CD19 expression

BACKGROUND

Despite significant progress in the development of T cell-engaging therapies for various B-cell malignancies, a high medical need remains for the refractory disease setting, often characterized by suboptimal target levels.

METHODS

To address this issue, we have developed a 65-kDa multispecific antibody construct, CLN-978, with affinities tuned to optimize the killing of low-CD19 expressing tumor cells. CLN-978 bound to CD19 on B cells with picomolar affinity, and to CD3ε on T cells with nanomolar affinity. A serum albumin binding domain was incorporated to extend serum half-life. In this setting, we biophysically characterize and report the activities of CLN-978 in cell co-culture assays, multiple mouse models and non-human primates.

RESULTS

Human T cells redirected by CLN-978 could eliminate target cells expressing less than 300 copies of CD19 on their surface. The half-life extension and high affinity for CD19 led to significant antitumor activity in murine lymphoma models at very low doses of CLN-978. In primates, we observed a long serum half-life, deep and sustained depletion of normal B cells, and remarkable tolerability, in particular, reduced cytokine release when CLN-978 was administered subcutaneously.

CONCLUSIONS

CLN-978 warrants further exploration. An ongoing clinical phase 1 trial is investigating safety, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and the initial therapeutic potential of subcutaneously administered CLN-978 in patients with non-Hodgkin's lymphoma.

Harnessing the Immune System: An Effective Way to Manage Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is a heterogenous hematological disorder with malignant potential controlled by immunological characteristics of the tumor microenvironment. Rapid breakthrough in the molecular pathways has made immunological approaches the main anchor in the management of DLBCL, with or without chemotherapeutic agents. Rituximab was the first monoclonal antibody approved for the treatment of DLBCL. Following rituximab that transformed the therapeutic landscape, other novel immunological agents including chimeric antigen T-cell therapy have reshaped the management of relapsed/refractory DLBCL. However, resistance and refractory state remain a challenge in the management of DLBCL. For this literature review, we screened articles from Medline, Embase, Cochrane databases and the European/North American guidelines from March 2010 through October 2022 for DLBCL. Here we discuss immunological agents that will significantly affect future treatment of this aggressive type of lymphoma.

Bispecific antibody targeting TGF-β and PD-L1 for synergistic cancer immunotherapy

The PD-1/PD-L1 signaling pathway plays a crucial role in cancer immune evasion, and the use of anti-PD-1/PD-L1 antibodies represents a significant milestone in cancer immunotherapy. However, the low response rate observed in unselected patients and the development of therapeutic resistance remain major obstacles to their clinical application. Accumulating studies showed that overexpressed TGF-β is another immunosuppressive factor apart from traditional immune checkpoints. Actually, the effects of PD-1 and TGF-β pathways are independent and interactive, which work together contributing to the immune evasion of cancer cell. It has been verified that blocking TGF-β and PD-L1 simultaneously could enhance the efficacy of PD-L1 monoclonal antibody and overcome its treatment resistance. Based on the bispecific antibody or fusion protein technology, multiple bispecific and bifunctional antibodies have been developed. In the preclinical and clinical studies, these updated antibodies exhibited potent anti-tumor activity, superior to anti-PD-1/PD-L1 monotherapies. In the review, we summarized the advances of bispecific antibodies targeting TGF-β and PD-L1 in cancer immunotherapy. We believe these next-generation immune checkpoint inhibitors would substantially alter the cancer treatment paradigm, especially in anti-PD-1/PD-L1-resistant patients.

Recombinant Human CD19 in CHO-K1 Cells: Glycosylation Patterns as a Quality Attribute of High Yield Processes

CD19 is an essential protein in personalized CD19-targeting chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cell-based cancer immunotherapies and CAR-T cell functionality evaluation. However, the recombinant expression of this "difficult to-express" (DTE) protein is challenging, and therefore, commercial access to the protein is limited. We have previously described the successful stable expression of our soluble CD19-AD2 fusion protein of the CD19 extracellular part fused with human serum albumin domain 2 (AD2) in CHO-K1 cells. The function, stability, and secretion rate of DTE proteins can be improved by culture conditions, such as reduced temperature and a shorter residence time. Moreover, glycosylation, as one of the most important post-translational modifications, represents a critical quality attribute potentially affecting CAR-T cell effector function and thus impacting therapy's success. In this study, we increased the production rate of CD19-AD2 by 3.5-fold through applying hypothermic culture conditions. We efficiently improved the purification of our his-tagged CD19-AD2 fusion protein via a Ni-NTA-based affinity column using a stepwise increase in the imidazole concentration. The binding affinity to commercially available anti-CD19 antibodies was evaluated via Bio-Layer Interferometry (BLI). Furthermore, we revealed glycosylation patterns via Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry (ESI-MS), and five highly sialylated and multi-antennary N-glycosylation sites were identified. In summary, we optimized the CD19-AD2 production and purification process and were the first to characterize five highly complex N-glycosylation sites.

CAR T Cell Therapy: Remedies of Current Challenges in Design, Injection, Infiltration and Working

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy, as an innovative immunotherapy, plays a huge role in current cancer therapy. Although CAR T cell therapy has demonstrated therapeutic effects in some subtypes of B cell leukemia or lymphoma, there are many challenges that limit the therapeutic efficacy of CAR T cells in solid tumors. And how to efficiently transport CAR T cells to tumor tissues is a continuing concern for us. In this review, experiments have been extensively studied and compared. We finally compared the influence of different injection methods on therapeutic efficacy. We also carefully explored the difficulties of designing, homing, and working of CAR T cells, and ultimately came up with better solutions for each process to help CAR T cells reach tumor tissue more efficiently and quickly. These results will have significant implications for guiding CAR T cell therapy in cancer treatment.

Treatment of Relapsed B/T-cell Mixed Phenotype Acute Leukemia With Blinatumomab

Here, we describe the treatment of a patient with relapsed/refractory B/T mixed phenotype acute leukemia (MPAL) using blinatumomab monotherapy, the first bispecific T cell engager (BiTE) approved by the FDA for relapsed/refractory B cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL). A 64-year-old man with a history of stage 3 chronic kidney disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus was discovered to have B/T MPAL on bone marrow biopsy during hospitalization for dyspnea due to pulmonary embolism. The patient achieved brief remission with blinatumomab treatment before succumbing to neutropenic sepsis. The lack of sufficient data to guide therapy in MPAL remains a challenge, highlighting the potential of new targeted approaches such as blinatumomab to improve outcomes in relapsed/refractory MPAL.

Simultaneous evaluation of treatment efficacy and toxicity for bispecific T-cell engager therapeutics in a humanized mouse model

Immuno-oncology (IO)-based therapies such as checkpoint inhibitors, bi-specific antibodies, and CAR-T-cell therapies have shown significant success in the treatment of several cancer indications. However, these therapies can result in the development of severe adverse events, including cytokine release syndrome (CRS). Currently, there is a paucity of in vivo models that can evaluate dose-response relationships for both tumor control and CRS-related safety issues. We tested an in vivo PBMC humanized mouse model to assess both treatment efficacy against specific tumors and the concurrent cytokine release profiles for individual human donors after treatment with a CD19xCD3 bispecific T-cell engager (BiTE). Using this model, we evaluated tumor burden, T-cell activation, and cytokine release in response to bispecific T-cell-engaging antibody in humanized mice generated with different PBMC donors. The results show that PBMC engrafted NOD-scid Il2rgnull mice lacking expression of mouse MHC class I and II (NSG-MHC-DKO mice) and implanted with a tumor xenograft predict both efficacy for tumor control by CD19xCD3 BiTE and stimulated cytokine release. Moreover, our findings indicate that this PBMC-engrafted model captures variability among donors for tumor control and cytokine release following treatment. Tumor control and cytokine release were reproducible for the same PBMC donor in separate experiments. The PBMC humanized mouse model described here is a sensitive and reproducible platform that identifies specific patient/cancer/therapy combinations for treatment efficacy and development of complications.

Diagnostic Flow Cytometry in the Era of Targeted Therapies: Lessons from Therapeutic Monoclonal Antibodies and Chimeric Antigen Receptor T-cell Adoptive Immunotherapy

Therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (therapeutic mAb) and adoptive immunotherapy have become increasingly more common in the treatment of hematolymphoid neoplasms, with practical implications for diagnostic flow cytometry. Their use can reduce the sensitivity of flow cytometry for populations of interest owing to downregulation/loss of the target antigen, competition for the target antigen, or lineage switch. Expanded flow panels, marker redundancy, and exhaustive gating strategies can overcome this limitation. Therapeutic mAb have been reported to cause pseudo-light chain restriction, and awareness of this potential artifact is key. Established guidelines do not yet exist for antigen expression by flow cytometry for therapeutic purposes.

Adeno-Associated Virus-Mediated Immunotherapy Based on Bispecific Tandem scFv for Alzheimer’s Disease

Background: Patients with Alzheimer’s disease (AD) have considerably increased globally as a result of population aging, placing a significant burden on the global economy and the medical system. The outcome of clinical trials for AD immunotherapy that solely targeted amyloid-β (Aβ) or phosphorylated tau protein (p-Tau) was unsatisfactory. Therefore, blocking both Aβ and p-Tau’s pathological processes simultaneously while also preventing their interaction may be the key to developing an effective AD therapy. Objective: To develop a novel immunotherapy based on bispecific tandem scFv (TaFv) against AD. Methods: Bispecific single-chain antibody that targets both Aβ and p-Tau were obtained using E. coli expression system. Biological ability of TaFvs were determined by ELISA, SDS-PAGE, and immunohistochemical assay. Recombinant adeno-associated virus 9 (rAAV9) were packaged to create TaFv. The in vivo activity of rAAV9 were detected in mouse, using biophotonic imaging and frozen section methods. Results: The outcomes demonstrated that both Aβ and p-Tau had a high affinity for the bispecific TaFv. Additionally, it can bind to the amyloid plaques and neuronal tangles in the brain slices of an AD mouse model. Moreover, the rAAV9 could infect neuronal cells, transverse the blood-brain barrier, and express TaFv in the mouse brain. Conclusion: This novel immunotherapy offers a fresh concept for the immunotherapy of AD and successfully delivers the double target antibody into the brain, acting on both pathogenic substances Aβ and p-Tau.

Antibody-drug conjugates and bispecific antibodies targeting cancers: applications of click chemistry

Engineering approaches using antibody drug conjugates (ADCs) and bispecific antibodies (bsAbs) are designed to overcome the limitations of conventional chemotherapies and therapeutic antibodies such as drug resistance and non-specific toxicity. Cancer immunotherapies have been shown to be clinically successful with checkpoint blockade and chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy; however, overactive immune systems still represent a major problem. Given the complexity of a tumor environment, it would be advantageous to have a strategy targeting two or more molecules. We highlight the necessity and importance of a multi-target platform strategy against cancer. Approximately 400 ADCs and over 200 bsAbs are currently being clinically developed for several indications, with promising signs of therapeutic activity. ADCs include antibodies that recognize tumor antigens, linkers that stably connect drugs, and powerful cytotoxic drugs, also known as payloads. ADCs have direct therapeutic effects by targeting cancers with a strong payload. Another type of drug that uses antibodies are bsAbs, targeting two antigens by linking to antigen recognition sites or bridging cytotoxic immune cells to tumor cells, resulting in cancer immunotherapy. Three bsAbs and one ADC have been approved for use by the FDA and the EMA in 2022. Among these, two of the bsAbs and the one ADC are used for cancers. We introduced that bsADC, a combination of ADC and bsAbs, has yet to be approved and several candidates are in the early stages of clinical development in this review. bsADCs technology helps increase the specificity of ADCs or the internalization and killing ability of bsAbs. We also briefly discuss the application of click chemistry in the efficient development of ADCs and bsAbs as a conjugation strategy. The present review summarizes the ADCs, bsAbs, and bsADCs that have been approved for anti-cancer or currently in development. These strategies selectively deliver drugs to malignant tumor cells and can be used as therapeutic approaches for various types of cancer.

Cancer immunotherapies: A hope for the uncurable?

The use of cancer immunotherapies is not novel but has been used over the decades in the clinic. Only recently have we found the true potential of stimulating an anti-tumor response after the breakthrough of checkpoint inhibitors. Cancer immunotherapies have become the first line treatment for many malignancies at various stages. Nevertheless, the clinical results in terms of overall survival and progression free survival were not as anticipated. Majority of cancer patients do not respond to immunotherapies and the reasons differ. Hence, further improvements for cancer immunotherapies are crucially needed. In the review, we will discuss various forms of cancer immunotherapies that are being tested or already in the clinic. Moreover, we also highlight future directions to improve such therapies.

Nanobodies in cell-mediated immunotherapy: On the road to fight cancer

The immune system is essential in recognizing and eliminating tumor cells. The unique characteristics of the tumor microenvironment (TME), such as heterogeneity, reduced blood flow, hypoxia, and acidity, can reduce the efficacy of cell-mediated immunity. The primary goal of cancer immunotherapy is to modify the immune cells or the TME to enable the immune system to eliminate malignancies successfully. Nanobodies, known as single-domain antibodies, are light chain-free antibody fragments produced from Camelidae antibodies. The unique properties of nanobodies, including high stability, reduced immunogenicity, enhanced infiltration into the TME of solid tumors and facile genetic engineering have led to their promising application in cell-mediated immunotherapy. They can promote the cancer therapy either directly by bridging between tumor cells and immune cells and by targeting cancer cells using immune cell-bound nanobodies or indirectly by blocking the inhibitory ligands/receptors. The T-cell activation can be engaged through anti-CD3 and anti-4-1BB nanobodies in the bispecific (bispecific T-cell engagers (BiTEs)) and trispecific (trispecific T-cell engager (TriTEs)) manners. Also, nanobodies can be used as natural killer (NK) cell engagers (BiKEs, TriKEs, and TetraKEs) to create an immune synapse between the tumor and NK cells. Nanobodies can redirect immune cells to attack tumor cells through a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) incorporating a nanobody against the target antigen. Various cancer antigens have been targeted by nanobody-based CAR-T and CAR-NK cells for treating both hematological and solid malignancies. They can also cause the continuation of immune surveillance against tumor cells by stopping inappropriate inhibition of immune checkpoints. Other roles of nanobodies in cell-mediated cancer immunotherapy include reprogramming macrophages to reduce metastasis and angiogenesis, as well as preventing the severe side effects occurring in cell-mediated immunotherapy. Here, we highlight the critical functions of various immune cells, including T cells, NK cells, and macrophages in the TME, and discuss newly developed immunotherapy methods based on the targeted manipulation of immune cells and TME with nanobodies.

The emerging scenario of immunotherapy for T-cell Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia: advances, challenges and future perspectives

T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) is a challenging pediatric and adult haematologic disease still associated with an unsatisfactory cure rate. Unlike B-ALL, the availability of novel therapeutic options to definitively improve the life expectancy for relapsed/resistant patients is poor. Indeed, the shared expression of surface targets among normal and neoplastic T-cells still limits the efficacy and may induce fratricide effects, hampering the use of innovative immunotherapeutic strategies. However, novel monoclonal antibodies, bispecific T-cell engagers (BTCEs), and chimeric antigen receptors (CAR) T-cells recently showed encouraging results and some of them are in an advanced stage of pre-clinical development or are currently under investigation in clinical trials. Here, we review this exciting scenario focusing on most relevant advances, challenges, and perspectives of the emerging landscape of immunotherapy of T-cell malignancies.

Impact of Precision Medicine in Oncology: Immuno-oncology

ABSTRACT

Cancer treatment has dramatically changed over the last decade with the development of immunotherapy. Therapies including immune cytokines, immune checkpoint inhibition, intratumoral therapies, and cellular therapies are already widely used in the oncology clinic. Active development continues in these areas and in the development of vaccines, bispecific therapies, and more refined cellular therapies. In this review, we will examine the role that immune therapy has in cancer treatment and explore areas of future development.

Amsacrine combined with etoposide and methylprednisolone is a feasible and safe component in first-line intensified treatment of pediatric patients with high-risk acute lymphoblastic leukemia in CoALL08-09 trial

BACKGROUND

The prognosis of children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) has improved considerably over the past five decades. However, to achieve cure in patients with refractory or relapsed disease, novel treatment options are necessary.

METHODS

In the multicenter trial Cooperative Study Group for Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (CoALL)08-09, one additional treatment element consisting of the rarely used chemotherapeutic agent amsacrine combined with etoposide and methylprednisolone (AEP) (amsacrine 2 × 100 mg/m² , etoposide 2 × 500 mg/m² , and methylprednisolone 4 × 1000 mg/m² ) was incorporated into the first-line treatment of pediatric patients with poor treatment responses at the end of induction (EOI), measured by minimal residual disease (MRD). These patients were stratified into a high-risk intensified arm (HR-I), including an AEP element at the end of consolidation. Patients with induction failure (IF), that is, with lack of cytomorphological remission EOI, were eligible for hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) after remission had been reached. These patients received AEP as a part of their MRD-guided bridging-to-transplant treatments.

RESULTS

A significant improvement in probability of overall survival (pOS) was noted for the CoALL08-09 HR-I patients compared to MRD-matched patients from the preceding CoALL07-03 trial in the absence of severe or persistent treatment-related toxicities. Relapse rate and probability of event-free survival (pEFS) did not differ significantly between trials. In patients with IF, stable or improved MRD responses after AEP were observed without severe or persistent treatment-related toxicities.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, AEP is well tolerated as a component of the HR treatment and is useful in bridging-to-transplant settings.

TriTECM: A tetrafunctional T-cell engaging antibody with built-in risk mitigation of cytokine release syndrome

Harnessing the innate power of T cells for therapeutic benefit has seen many shortcomings due to cytotoxicity in the past, but still remains a very attractive mechanism of action for immune-modulating biotherapeutics. With the intent of expanding the therapeutic window for T-cell targeting biotherapeutics, we present an attenuated trispecific T-cell engager (TCE) combined with an anti- interleukin 6 receptor (IL-6R) binding moiety in order to modulate cytokine activity (TriTECM). Overshooting cytokine release, culminating in cytokine release syndrome (CRS), is one of the severest adverse effects observed with T-cell immunotherapies, where the IL-6/IL-6R axis is known to play a pivotal role. By targeting two tumour-associated antigens, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1), simultaneously with a bispecific two-in-one antibody, high tumour selectivity together with checkpoint inhibition was achieved. We generated tetrafunctional molecules that contained additional CD3- and IL-6R-binding modules. Ligand competition for both PD-L1 and IL-6R as well as inhibition of both EGF- and IL-6-mediated signalling pathways was observed. Furthermore, TriTECM molecules were able to activate T cells and trigger T-cell-mediated cytotoxicity through CD3-binding in an attenuated fashion. A decrease in pro-inflammatory cytokine interferon γ (IFNγ) after T-cell activation was observed for the TriTECM molecules compared to their respective controls lacking IL-6R binding, hinting at a successful attenuation and potential modulation via IL-6R. As IL-6 is a key player in cytokine release syndrome as well as being implicated in enhancing tumour progression, such molecule designs could reduce side effects and cytotoxicity observed with previous TCEs and widen their therapeutic windows.

Treatment Landscape of Relapsed/Refractory Mantle Cell Lymphoma: An Updated Review

Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) accounts for nearly 2-6% of all non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) cases, with a steady incidence increase over the past few decades. Although many patients achieve an adequate response to the upfront treatment, the short duration of remission with rapid relapse is challenging during MCL management. In this regard, there is no consensus on the best treatment options for relapsed/refractory (R/R) disease, and the international guidelines demonstrate wide variations in the recommended approaches. The last decade has witnessed the introduction of new agents in the treatment landscape of R/R MCL. Since the introduction of Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK) inhibitors, the treatment algorithm and response of R/R MCL patients have dramatically changed. Nevertheless, BTK resistance is common, necessitating further investigations to develop novel agents with a more durable response. Novel agents targeting the B-cell receptor (BCR) signaling have exhibited clinical activity and a well-tolerable safety profile. However, as the responses to these novel agents are still modest in most clinical trials, combination strategies were investigated in pre-clinical and early clinical settings to determine whether the combination of novel agents would exhibit a better durable response than single agents. In this report, we provide an updated literature review that covers recent clinical data about the safety and efficacy of novel therapies for the management of R/R MCL.

A novel CD19/CD22/CD3 trispecific antibody enhances therapeutic efficacy and overcomes immune escape against B-ALL

The bispecific T-cell engager (BiTE) blinatumomab against CD19 and CD3 has emerged as the most successful bispecific antibody (bsAb) to date; however, a significant proportion of patients do not respond to the treatments or eventually experience relapse after an initial response, and the recurrence rate increases significantly due to escape or downregulation of the CD19 antigen. To enhance antitumor efficacy and overcome potential immune escape, we developed a novel approach to design a CD19/CD22/CD3 trispecific antibody (tsAb) by site-specifically fusing anti-CD19 scFv (FMC63) and anti-CD22 nanobody (Nb25) to the defined sites of the CD3 antigen-binding fragment (Fab, SP34). This strategy allows for the optimal formation of immune synapses mediated by CD19/CD22/CD3 between target cells and T cells. Optimized tsAb can be superior for inducing T-cell-specific cytotoxicity and cytokine production against CD19+ and/or CD22+ tumor cells compared to other tsAb formats, and demonstrated significantly enhanced antitumor efficacy and the ability to overcome immune escape compared with the corresponding bsAbs alone or in combination, as well as with blinatumomab. In addition, tsAb treatment can lead to the long-term elimination of primary B-ALL patient samples in the PDX model and significantly prolong survival. This novel approach provides unique insight into the structural optimization of T-cell-redirected multispecific antibodies using site-specific recombination, and may be broadly applicable to heterogeneous and resistant tumor populations as well as solid tumors.

Immunotherapeutic progress and application of bispecific antibody in cancer

Bispecific antibodies (bsAbs) are artificial antibodies with two distinct antigen-binding sites that can bind to different antigens or different epitopes on the same antigen. Based on a variety of technology platforms currently developed, bsAbs can exhibit different formats and mechanisms of action. The upgrading of antibody technology has promoted the development of bsAbs, which has been effectively used in the treatment of tumors. So far, 7 bsAbs have been approved for marketing in the world, and more than 200 bsAbs are in clinical and preclinical research stages. Here, we summarize the development process of bsAbs, application in tumor treatment and look forward to the challenges in future development.

Opportunities and challenges of bi-specific antibodies

The recent clinical approval of different Bi-specific antibodies (BsAbs) has revealed the great therapeutic potential of this novel class of biologicals. For example, the bispecific T-cell engager (BiTE), Blinatumomab, demonstrated the unique capacity of BsAbs to link T-cells with tumor cells, inducing targeted tumor cell removal. Additionally, Amivantamab, recognizing the EGFR and cMet in cis, revealed a substantial improvement of therapeutic efficacy by concomitantly targeting two tumor antigens. Cis-targeting BsAbs furthermore allow discerning cell populations which concurrently express two antigens, for which each antigen expression pattern in itself might not be selective. In this way, BsAbs harbor the great prospect of being more specific and showing fewer side effects than monoclonal antibodies. Nevertheless, BsAbs have also faced major obstacles, for instance, in ensuring reliable assembly and clinical-grade purification. In this review, we summarize the different available antibody platforms currently used for the generation of IgG-like and non-IgG-like BsAbs and explain which approaches have been used to assemble those BsAbs which are currently approved for clinical application. By focusing on the example of regulatory T-cells (Tregs) and the different, ongoing approaches to develop BsAbs specifically targeting Tregs within the tumor microenvironment, our review highlights the huge potential as well as the pitfalls BsAb face in order to emerge as one of the most effective therapeutic biologicals targeting desired cell populations in a highly selective way. Such BsAb may improve treatment efficacy and reduce side effects, thereby opening novel treatment opportunities for a range of different diseases, such as cancer or autoimmune diseases.

Human γδ T Cell Subsets and Their Clinical Applications for Cancer Immunotherapy

Simple Summary

Research into the immunotherapeutic potential of T cells has predominantly focused on conventional alpha beta (αβ) T cells, which recognize peptide antigens presented by polymorphic major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and class II molecules. However, innate-like T cells, such as gamma delta (γδ) T cells, also play important roles in antitumor immunity. Here, we review the current understanding of γδ T cells in antitumor immunity and discuss strategies that could potentially maximize their potential in cancer immunotherapy.

Abstract

Gamma delta (γδ) T cells are a minor population of T cells that share adaptive and innate immune properties. In contrast to MHC-restricted alpha beta (αβ) T cells, γδ T cells are activated in an MHC-independent manner, making them ideal candidates for developing allogeneic, off-the-shelf cell-based immunotherapies. As the field of cancer immunotherapy progresses rapidly, different subsets of γδ T cells have been explored. In addition, γδ T cells can be engineered using different gene editing technologies that augment their tumor recognition abilities and antitumor functions. In this review, we outline the unique features of different subsets of human γδ T cells and their antitumor properties. We also summarize the past and the ongoing pre-clinical studies and clinical trials utilizing γδ T cell-based cancer immunotherapy.

Novel strategies for the mitigation of cytokine release syndrome induced by T cell engaging therapies with a focus on the use of kinase inhibitors

T cell engaging therapies, like CAR-T cells and T cell engagers, redirect T cells toward tumor cells, facilitating the formation of a cytotoxic synapse and resulting in subsequent tumor cell killing. T cell receptor or CAR-T downstream signaling triggers a release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which can induce a Cytokine Release Syndrome (CRS). The incidence of CRS is still hardly predictable among individuals and remains one of the major dose-limiting safety liabilities associated with on-target activity of T cell engaging therapies. This emphasizes the need to elaborate mitigation strategies, which reduce cytokine release while retaining efficacy. Here, we review pre-clinical and clinical approaches applied for the management of CRS symptoms in the context of T cell engaging therapies, highlighting the use of tyrosine kinase inhibitors as an emerging mitigation strategy. In particular, we focus on the effects of Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK), Src family including Lck, mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and Janus tyrosine kinase (JAK) inhibitors on T cell functionality and cytokine release, to provide a rationale for their use as mitigation strategies against CRS in the context of T cell engaging therapies.

[Preparation of CD33 targeted bispecific- and trispecific-T cell engagers and their cytotoxicity on leukemia cells]

Objective: To investigate the effect of CD33-targeted bi-specific and tri-specific T-cell engagers on T-cell proliferation and explore their cytotoxicity on leukemia cells. Methods: The CD33-targeted bi-specific T-cell engager (CD33-BiTE) and tri-specific T-cell engager (CD33-TriTE) expression vectors were successfully constructed and expressed through a eukaryotic cell expression system. CD33-BiTE and CD33-TriTE were purified by affinity chromatography. The effects of CD33-BiTE and CD33-TriTE on T cells were analyzed through in vitro experiments. Results: ① CD33-BiTE and CD33-TriTE were successfully constructed and purified and could compete with flow cytometry antibodies for binding to the target cells. ② After 12 days of co-culture with CD33-BiTE and CD33-TriTE, the number of human T cells were expanded to 33.89±19.46 and 81.56±23.62 folds, respectively. CD33-TriTE induced a stronger proliferation of T cells than CD33-BiTE (P<0.05) . ③ Both CD33-BiTE and CD33-TriTE induced specific dose-dependent cytotoxicity on CD33(+) leukemia cells. ④ Compared to CD33-TriTE, leukemia cells were prone to express PD-L1 when co-cultured with T cells and CD33-BiTE. CD33-TriTE induced powerful cytotoxicity on leukemia cells with high PD-L1 expression. Conclusion: CD33-BiTE and CD33-TriTE expression vectors were constructed, and fusion proteins were expressed in eukaryotic cells. Our results support the proliferative and activating effects of BiTE and TriTE on T cells. Compared to that of CD33-BiTE, CD33-TriTE induced a stronger proliferative effect on T cells and a more powerful cytotoxicity on leukemia cells with high PD-L1 expression.

Development of Cancer Immunotherapies

Cancer immunotherapy, or the utilization of components of the immune system to target and eliminate cancer, has become a highly active area of research in the past several decades and a common treatment strategy for several cancer types. The concept of harnessing the immune system for this purpose originated over 100 years ago when a physician by the name of William Coley successfully treated several of his cancer patients with a combination of live and attenuated bacteria, later known as "Coley's Toxins", after observing a subset of prior patients enter remission following their diagnosis with the common bacterial infection, erysipelas. However, it was not until late in the twentieth century that cancer immunotherapies were developed for widespread use, thereby transforming the treatment landscape of numerous cancer types. Pivotal studies elucidating molecular and cellular functions of immune cells, such as the discovery of IL-2 and production of monoclonal antibodies, fostered the development of novel techniques for studying the immune system and ultimately the development and approval of several cancer immunotherapies by the United States Food and Drug Association in the 1980s and 1990s, including the tuberculosis vaccine-Bacillus Calmette-Guérin, IL-2, and the CD20-targeting monoclonal antibody. Approval of the first therapeutic cancer vaccine, Sipuleucel-T, for the treatment of metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer and the groundbreaking success and approval of immune checkpoint inhibitors and chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy in the last decade, have driven an explosion of interest in and pursuit of novel cancer immunotherapy strategies. A broad range of modalities ranging from antibodies to adoptive T cell therapies is under investigation for the generalized treatment of a broad spectrum of cancers as well as personalized medicine. This chapter will focus on the recent advances, current strategies, and future outlook of immunotherapy development for the treatment of cancer.

IBI379, a novel B cell maturation antigen/CD3 bispecific T-cell engager, displays high antitumor efficacy in preclinical models of multiple myeloma

Multiple myeloma (MM) is a hematological malignancy that results from the malignant proliferation of plasma cells in the bone marrow. B cell maturation antigen (BCMA) is highly selectively expressed in malignant plasma cells and is a novel therapeutic target for MM. Here, we developed a bispecific T cell engager, IBI379, that targets BCMA and CD3, and investigated its antitumor efficacy against MM. IBI379 showed strong binding affinity with both BCMA and CD3, which triggered T cell activation, proliferation, and cytokine release. An in vitro study demonstrated that IBI379 induced the lysis of MM cells expressing differing levels of BCMA on the cell surface. Administration of IBI379 in H929 or Daudi-BCMA cell xenograft mouse models significantly inhibited tumor growth without inducing body weight loss. The mechanism of action study revealed the accumulation of CD4⁺CD8⁺ T cells and granzyme B-positive T cells in tumors that were treated with IBI379. Moreover, administration of low dose of IBI379 in cynomolgus monkeys was well-tolerated and induced the depletion of BCMA⁺ B cells and a mild transient increase of cytokines. Collectively, these results demonstrate that IBI379 is a highly potent therapeutic strategy for depleting BCMA-positive B cells and is a promising approach for the treatment of MM.

Novel Bi-Specific Immuno-Modulatory Tribodies Potentiate T Cell Activation and Increase Anti-Tumor Efficacy

Cancer immunotherapy has already shown significant improvements by combining different antibodies specific for distinct immune checkpoints, such as Ipilimumab and Nivolumab. Here, we tested combinatorial treatments of immunomodulatory antibodies, previously generated in our laboratory, for their effects on hPBMC activation, either upon stimulation with SEB or in co-cultures with tumor cells by cytokine secretion assays. We found that some of them showed additive or synergistic effects, and on the basis of these observations, we constructed, for the first time, four novel bispecific tribodies (TR), made up of a Fab derived from one anti-IC mAb and two scFvs derived from another mAb targeting a different IC. All four TRs cotargeting either programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) and Lymphocyte Activating 3 (LAG-3) or programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) and LAG-3 retained binding affinity for their targets and the antagonistic effects of their parental mAbs, but some of them also showed an increased ability to induce lymphocyte activation and increased in vitro cytotoxicity against tumor cells compared to parental antibodies used either alone or in combinatorial treatments. Furthermore, none of the tribodies showed significant increased cytotoxicity on human cardiomyocytes. Considering that the tribody format reduces production costs (as only one construct provides the inhibitory effects of two antibodies), has an intermediate molecular size (100 kDa) which is well suited for both tumor penetration and an acceptable half-life, we think that these novel immunomodulatory TRBs have the potential to become precious tools for therapeutic applications, particularly in monotherapy-resistant cancer patients.

Bispecific Antibodies for Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment

OPINION STATEMENT

While there have been numerous advances in the field of non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) over the last decade, relapsed and/or refractory (R/R) NHL remains a challenge and an area with unmet needs. T-cell redirecting immunotherapeutic approaches including chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cells and bispecific antibodies (BsAbs) have the potential to revolutionize NHL therapy. BsAbs target CD3 on T-cells and CD19 or CD20 on malignant B-cells and have shown promises as a novel immunotherapy for NHL. The development of CD19 × CD3 BsAbs such as blinatumomab was met with significant challenges due to dose-limiting neurologic side effects. However, several CD20 × CD3 BsAbs including odronextamab, mosunetuzumab, glofitamab, and epcoritamab emerged recently. They have favorable toxicity profiles, with reduced cytokine release syndrome and neurotoxicity. In addition, all these BsAbs have demonstrated very promising efficacy in R/R NHL. With expansion and registrational studies actively ongoing, approvals of these agents for R/R NHL are anticipated in the near future. Some important questions pertinent to future clinical development of BsAbs include when and how to best utilize BsAbs in the management of R/R NHL, whether there is a role of BsAbs in treatment-naïve NHL, and how to combine BsAbs with other therapies. For example, whether BsAbs can be combined with cytotoxic chemotherapy effectively remains to be seen. A plethora of clinical studies will be needed to help address these questions, some of which are already ongoing. In addition, how do BsAbs compare to CAR T-cell therapy and how to choose and sequence between BsAbs and CAR T-cell therapy need to be addressed. While many of these critical questions remain to be answered in clinical studies, we believe the future of BsAbs in the NHL is very bright.

The safety of blinatumomab in pediatric patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Blinatumomab is a bispecific CD19-directed CD3 T-cell engager that has proven efficacy in children with relapsed or refractory B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). Despite its efficacy, it has also been associated with the development of potentially serious adverse events such as the cytokine release syndrome (CRS) and neurologic events. The present meta-analysis aimed to assess the safety profile of blinatumomab in terms of serious adverse events, CRS, and neurologic events (such as seizure and encephalopathy) in pediatric patients with B-cell ALL.

METHODS AND FINDINGS

A systematic review was conducted in Pubmed up to December 10, 2021 to retain pediatric clinical trials on blinatumomab. A random effect meta-analysis approach was used. This study followed the PRISMA statement. Four out of the 255 initial references were selected, of which 2 were phase 1/2 clinical trials and 2 phase 3 clinical trials. Blinatumomab was associated with a lower risk of serious adverse events (Risk ratio RR, 0.56; 95% CI, 0.32-0.99), febrile neutropenia (RR, 0.13; 95% CI, 0.06-0.26), infection (RR, 0.40; 95% CI, 0.29-0.56), and grade ≥ 3 adverse events (RR, 0.79; 95% CI, 0.67-0.93) compared to chemotherapy. No difference in the risk of CRS (RR, 8.37; 95% CI, 0.27-260.97) and seizure (RR, 6.43; 95% CI, 0.79-53.08) was observed between groups, while for encephalopathy a higher risk was associated with blinatumomab compared to chemotherapy (RR, 8.90; 95% CI, 1.08-73.29).

CONCLUSION

Our data support the good safety profile of bliantumomab in treating pediatric patients with B-ALL.