Human interleukin-9: a new cytokine in hematopoiesis

Quercetin supplementation attenuates cisplatin induced myelosuppression in mice through regulation of hematopoietic growth factors and hematopoietic inhibitory factors

The present study investigated the effects of quercetin on cisplatin (CDDP)-induced common side effect, myelosuppression, and the possible mechanisms in Balb/c mice. The mice were randomly treated with CDDP alone or in combination with quercetin for 14 days. Quercetin was given by intraperitoneal injection (10 mg/kg, 3 times a week; IQ) or by a diet containing 0.1% or 1% quercetin (LQ and HQ, respectively). We found that quercetin supplementation especially HQ and IQ, significantly restored the decrease in number of bone marrow cells, total white blood cells, red blood cells and platelets, and the body weight in mice exposed to CDDP (P≤.05). Similar trends were observed in the number of neutrophils, lymphocytes and monocytes in the plasma. HQ and IQ also increased the levels of hematopoietic growth factors (HGFs), especially in granulocyte-macrophage-colony stimulating factor and IL-9 (P<.05), but decreased the levels of hematopoietic inhibitory factors (HIFs) and oxidative stress in the plasma and the bone marrow in CDDP-exposed mice. Furthermore, both quercetin and quercetin-3-O-glucuronide (Q3G) significantly increase cell viability and inhibited apoptosis at 48 or 72 h (P≤.05), accompanied by increasing HGF levels and decreasing HIF levels in the cultured medium in 32D cells exposed to CDDP. IL-9 siRNA transfection suppressed the effects of quercetin and Q3G on cell viability (P≤.05) in32D cells. In conclusion, our results indicate that quercetin attenuates CDDP-induced myelosuppression through the mechanisms associated with regulation of HGFs and HIFs.

MRG1, the product of a melanocyte-specific gene related gene, is a cytokine-inducible transcription factor with transformation activity

Identification of cytokine-inducible genes is imperative for determining the mechanisms of cytokine action. A cytokine-inducible gene, mrg1 [melanocyte-specific gene (msg1) related gene], was identified through mRNA differential display of interleukin (IL) 9-stimulated and unstimulated mouse helper T cells. In addition to IL-9, mrg1 can be induced by other cytokines and biological stimuli, including IL-1alpha, -2, -4, -6, and -11, granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor, interferon gamma, platelet-derived growth factor, insulin, serum, and lipopolysaccharide in diverse cell types. The induction of mrg1 by these stimuli appears to be transient, with induction kinetics similar to other primary response genes, implicating its role in diverse biological processes. Deletion or point mutations of either the Box1 motif (binds Janus kinase 1) or the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 binding site-containing region within the intracellular domain of the IL-9 receptor ligand binding subunit abolished or greatly reduced mrg1 induction by IL-9, suggesting that the Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription signaling pathway is required for mrg1 induction, at least in response to IL-9. Transfection of mrg1 cDNA into TS1, an IL-9-dependent mouse T cell line, converted these cells to IL-9-independent growth through a nonautocrine mechanism. Overexpression of mrg1 in Rat1 cells resulted in loss of cell contact inhibition, anchorage-independent growth in soft agar, and tumor formation in nude mice, demonstrating that mrg1 is a transforming gene. MRG1 is a transcriptional activator and may represent a founding member of an additional family of transcription factors.

Hodgkin's disease: a disorder of dysregulated cellular cross-talk

Hodgkin's disease (HD) is a peculiar type of human malignant lymphoma characterized by a very low frequency of tumor cells, the so called Hodgkin and Reed-Sternberg (H-RS) cells, embedded in a hyperplastic background of non-neoplastic (reactive) cells recruited and activated by H-RS cells-derived cytokines. H-RS cells can be functionally regarded as antigen-presenting cells (APC) able to elicit an intense, but anergic and ineffective, T-cell mediated immune response along with a hyperplastic inflammatory reaction which involves several cell types including T- and B-cells, neutrophils, eosinophils, plasma cells, fibroblasts and stromal cells. In tissues involved by HD, malignant H-RS cells and their reactive neighboring cells are able to cross-talk via a complex network of cytokine- and cell contact-dependent interactions. As a result of such interactions, mediated by specific surface receptors and adhesion molecules on both tumor and non-neoplastic cells, H-RS cells may receive several proliferative and anti-apoptotic signals favoring the cellular expansion and tumor cell survival in HD. The ineffective T-cell immune response elicited by the abnormal APC function of H-RS cells may further contribute to the biologic and clinical progression of HD. Innovative therapeutic strategies aimed at blocking the pathways of dysregulated cellular cross-talk among H-RS cells and bystander reactive cell populations might be beneficial in the treatment of HD patients.

Hodgkin's Disease and Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma Revisited. ii. from cytokines to cell lineage

The true identity of Hodgkin's mononuclear cells and Reed-Sternberg (H-RS) cells has been a subject of controversy for decades. Those who believe that Hodgkin's disease (HD) is a heterogeneous disease may consider it to constitute lymphomas of various origins. However, this theory seems incompatible with the finding of similar phenotypic, biologic, and immunologic properties among most HD. We believe that, in the majority of cases, HD, except for LP and some LD-type HD, is a homogeneous disease despite differences in the degree of fibrosis and/or cellular reaction. The heterogeneity in cellular reactions is a result of secretion of various cytokines by H-RS cells, which may or may not be influenced by the presence of EBV. H-RS cells, and anaplastic large cell lymphoma (ALCL) cells as well, can express a combination of cytokines and cytokine receptors that is not seen in other types of lymphomas. The unique cytokine/receptor profile (e.g. the expression of c-kit-R/CD117), along with various properties associated with H-RS/ALCL cells, leads to a hypothesis that H-RS/ALCL cells are related to similar lymphohematopoietic progenitor cells with different etiologies and somewhat limited differentiation capacity. A number of H-RS cells may differentiate with limited capacity along the B-cell pathway and may be infected by EBV, which further complicates the biologic and immunologic properties of these cells. The majority of H-RS cells may also, however, differentiate along the antigen-presenting dendritic cell pathway, as indicated by the abundant expression of restin, CD15, CD40, CD54, CD58, CD80, and CD86. The majority of ALCL cells clearly differentiate to T cells, but some may acquire B-cell or histiocyte phenotypes. The progenitor cell hypothesis may explain (1) the variable expression of CD117, CD43, and CD34 as well as the absence of CD27, CD45 and CD45RA in H-RS cells; (2) the inconsistent and irregular patterns of phenotype and genotype and the various, often very limited, degrees of differentiation among these two types of lymphoma cells; (3) the existence of secondary HD or ALCL associated with rare types of lymphomas or leukemias, or vice versa; (4) the absence of recombinase and of the B-specific transcription factors BSAP; and (5) the frequent expression of IL-7 and IL-9 in H-RS cells. Copyright 1996 S. Karger AG, Basel

Interleukins and colony stimulating factors in human myeloid leukemia cell lines

The present review has summarized the expression, production and effects of the human interleukins (IL) 1-11 and myelopoietic colony stimulating factors (CSF) in the established myeloid leukemia cell lines and in cells from patients with acute myeloid leukemia as well as the oncogene expression reported in these myeloid leukemia cell lines. The genetic dissection of leukemic myelopoiesis may provide new perspectives for the control of myeloid leukemias. Based on their expression of phenotypic markers (e.g., surface antigens, cytochemical staining, etc.), myeloid cell lines can be further subdivided into myelogenous, monocytic, erythroid and megakaryoblastic leukemia cell lines. Due to the close relationship of erythroid and megakaryoblastic progenitor cells and to the existence of a probably common precursor cell giving rise to these two different cell lineages, many megakaryoblastic cell lines express erythroid markers (e.g., expression of hemoglobin or glycophorin A) and conversely cell lines with a predominant erythroid profile might display megakaryoblastic features (e.g., platelets peroxidase or glycoproteins CD41, CD42b or CD61). The recent cloning of the specific cytokine: thrombopoietin (TPO) and its receptor generated a strong interest in these particular myeloid cell lines that are discussed in more detail in the present review. Both normal and leukemic megakaryocytopoiesis are stimulated by granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF), IL-3, GM-CSF/IL-3 fusion protein, IL-6, IL-11 and TPO but inhibited by IL-4, interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha) and IFN-gamma. Human megakaryoblastic leukemia cell lines have common biological features: high expression of the megakaryocytic specific antigen (CD41); high expression of early myeloid antigens (CD34, CD33 and CD13); constitutive expression of IL-6 and platelet-derived growth factor; a complex karyotype picture; expression of c-kit (the stem cell factor receptor); growth-dependency or -stimulation by IL-3 and/or GM-CSF; and in vivo tumorigenicity in mice associated with marked fibrosis. Whereas numerous chemical and biologic agents induce granulocytic and/or monocytic differentiation of myeloid leukemia cell lines, only a few agents including phorbol myristate acetate, vitamin D3, IFN-alpha, IL-6 and thrombin have been reported to induce megakaryocytic differentiation in the megakaryoblastic leukemia cells.

Hodgkin's Disease and Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma Revisited. 1. unique cytokine and cytokine receptor profile distinguished from that of non-hodgkin's lymphomas

In cultures, and in tissues as well, Hodgkin's and Reed-Sternberg (H-RS) cells and anaplastic large cell lymphoma (ALCL) cells are known to express a variety of cytokines, including IL-1, -5, -6, -8, -9, TNF-alpha, GM-CSF, M-CSF, TGF-beta, CD70, CD80, and CD86. Various numbers of H-RS/ALCL cells may express cytokine receptors (R), such as CD30, CD40, IL-2R (CD25/CD122), IL-6R (CD126), IL-7R (CD127), TNF-R (CD120), TGF-beta-R (CD 105/endoglin), M-CSF-R (CD115), and SCF-R (CD117/c-kit receptor). All of these cytokines and cytokine receptors are implicated in the growth regulation of H-RS/ALCL cells, the histopathologic alterations in tissues, and the clinical manifestations in patients with Hodgkin's disease (HD) or ALCL. Many of these cytokines or cytokine receptors also play an important role in the pathogenesis of other types of lymphomas. In this review, we describe the cytokine or cytokine-receptor expression that is diacritic for H-RS/ALCL cells. The identification of such unique cytokine-cytokine receptor interactions is likely to explain the biologic property that distinguishes HD/ALCL from other types of lymphomas. These interactions include those of CD30L-CD30, CD40L-CD40, CD70-CD27, CD80/CD86- CD28, SCF-CD117, IL-9-IL-9R, and IL-7-IL-7R. The H-RS/ALCL cells express IL-9 and two cytokine receptors, CD30 and CD117, which are observed infrequently in NHLs. Although IL-7 expression is not restricted to H-RS/ALCL cells, the expression of IL-7 in conjunction with IL-9 and/or CD117 may be regarded as unique for HD/ALCL because of an unusual combination and a synergistic activity among these cytokines. The expression of CD70 and CD80/CD86 (as cytokines) may exert a unique effect in HD because of intimate contact between H-RS cells and CD27/CD28-positive T cells. The expression of these costimulators (CD70 and CD80/CD86) and other adhesion/constimulator molecules such as CD54 and CD58, along with the secretion of soluble cytokines such as IL-1, IL-6, IL-7, or TNFs by H-RS/ALCL cells, could result in the profound T-cell proliferation often seen in lymph nodes involved by HD and some ALCL. On the other hand, the expression of CD30L and CD40L by surrounding T cells may affect the proliferation of H-RS/ALCL cells. The cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction between H-RS cells and T cells via direct cell-cell contact is bidirectional, a situation not commonly seen in NHLs. Copyright 1995 S. Karger AG, Basel

Activation of junB and c-myc primary response genes by interleukin 9 in a human factor-dependent cell line

Interleukin 9 (IL-9) stimulates the proliferation of various hematopoietic cell types. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying the cell proliferation action, immediate-early gene expression elicited by IL-9 in a human factor-dependent cell line, MO7e, was studied. IL-9 stimulation resulted in a rapid and transient elevation of primary response genes including junB and c-myc. The differential effects of protein kinase inhibitors, herbimycin A, genistein, and H-7 on the steady-state mRNA level and the transcription rate of junB and c-myc genes triggered by IL-9 were also investigated. Herbimycin A, but not genistein, specifically inhibited the expression of junB steady-state mRNA and the in vitro transcription of the junB gene. IL-9-enhanced c-myc gene expression was completely inhibited by both herbimycin A and genistein at the level of transcriptional initiation. H-7 failed to inhibit c-myc, but partially abolished junB mRNA induction. The role of protein kinase C in IL-9-mediated junB induction was also examined. The different responses of junB and c-myc messages to protein kinase inhibitors suggested that more than one pathway may be involved in IL-9-mediated signal transduction which leads to the expression of junB and c-myc genes.

Cytokines and thermoregulation: interleukin-9 injected in preoptic area fails to evoke fever in rats

A number of the members of the family of cytokines including IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, and IL-11 act directly in the brain to induce a febrile response in the rat and other species. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of interleukin-9 (IL-9) when this cytokine is applied directly to the thermosensitive and pyrogen reactive region of the anterior hypothalamic, preoptic area (AH/POA). In male Sprague-Dawley rats, guide cannulae for microinjection into the AH/POA were implanted stereotaxically, and radio transmitters for monitoring body temperature (Tb) were placed intraperitoneally. Following postoperative recovery, recombinant murine macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1 beta was microinjected in the AH/POA of each rat in a dose of 28 pg/microliters to identify pyrogen reactive sites in the AH/POA. Then recombinant human IL-9 was suspended in pyrogen-free CSF vehicle and microinjected in the same sites in concentrations of 2.4, 24, and 240 U/microliters. In contrast to the pyrexic action of MIP-1 beta, IL-9 failed to elicit a significant alteration in the Tb of the rats at any of the doses tested. IL-9 was also without effect on the intakes of either water or food. These results demonstrate that IL-9 applied to the region of the diencephalon in which other cytokines act to evoke fever may not play a direct role in the thermogenic component underlying the acute phase response. However, as demonstrated in several different cell systems, IL-9 may require a cofactor related to pyrogen for a febrile response to develop.