P2Y- and P2U-mediated increases in internal calcium in single bovine aortic endothelial cells in primary culture

Interaction of hydrocortisone with ATP and adenosine on nerve-mediated contractions of frog skeletal muscle

The inhibitory effects of ATP and adenosine on the nerve-mediated contractile responses of isolated sartorius muscle of the frog, Rana ridibunda, evoked by electrical field stimulation (EFS) were studied using pharmacological organ-bath technique. The effects of hydrocortisone applied in vitro and in vivo on contractility of sartorius muscle were also examined. ATP (100 microM) significantly reduced the amplitude of contraction to EFS of sartorius muscle, while pyridoxalphosphate-6-azonphenyl-2',4'-disulfonic acid (PPADS; 10 microM), a P2 receptor antagonist, abolished inhibitory effect of ATP. A similar inhibitory effect of adenosine (100 microM) was fully antagonized by 8-(p-sulfophenyl)-theophylline (8-SPT, 100 microM), a P1 receptor antagonist. Incubation of the tissue with hydrocortisone (10 microM) caused a slight, but significant, decrease of muscle contractions. After incubation of muscle preparations with both hydrocortisone and ATP, no inhibition of muscle contractility was registered. A single injection of hydrocortisone (100 mg/kg) 12 h prior to experiments to frogs did not significantly change the nerve-mediated contractility of isolated sartorius muscle; however, it abolished the inhibitory action of ATP without changing inhibitory activity of adenosine. After treatment of frogs with hydrocortisone for 14 days (100 mg/kg/day), both ATP and adenosine retained their inhibitory action on EFS-induced contractions of the muscle, and their effects were antagonized by PPADS and 8-SPT, respectively. It is concluded that hydrocortisone has antagonistic actions against the inhibitory effects of ATP at the frog neuromuscular junction, although this effect is lost following long-term treatment with hydrocortisone.

Short-term or long-term treatments with a phosphodiesterase-4 (PDE4) inhibitor result in opposing agonist-induced Ca(2+) responses in endothelial cells

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

We previously reported that agonist-induced rises in cytoplasmic Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) were inhibited after a short-term (2 min) pre-treatment with cAMP-elevating agents. The aim of this work was to study the effects of longer term (8 h) pre-treatment with dibutyryl-cAMP (db-cAMP) or rolipram, a specific inhibitor of phosphodiesterase-4 (PDE4), on [Ca(2+)](i), cAMP levels and PDE activity and expression in HUVEC.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

[Ca(2+)](i) changes were measured in isolated HUVEC by Fura-2 imaging. Intracellular cAMP levels and PDE4 activity were assessed by enzyme-immunoassay and radio-enzymatic assay, respectively. PDE expression was measured by northern and western blot analysis.

KEY RESULTS

Long-term pre-treatment of HUVEC with rolipram or db-cAMP significantly increased ATP-, histamine- and thrombin-induced [Ca(2+)](i) rises. Short-term pre-treatment with rolipram was associated with an increase in cAMP, whereas long-term pre-treatment was associated with a decrease in cAMP. Long-term pre-treatment with rolipram or db-cAMP induced a significant increase in PDE4 activity and the expression of 74 kDa-PDE4A and 73 kDa-PDE4B was specifically enhanced. All these effects were suppressed by cycloheximide.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Our data suggest that sustained inhibition of PDE4 by rolipram induced an increase in PDE4 activity, possibly as a compensatory mechanism to accelerate cAMP degradation and that PDE4A and PDE4B were implicated in the regulation of [Ca(2+)](i). Thus, isozyme-specific PDE4 inhibitors might be useful as therapeutic agents in diseases where [Ca(2+)](i) handling is altered, such as atherosclerosis, hypertension and tolerance to beta-adrenoceptor agonists.

A delayed ATP-elicited K+ current in freshly isolated smooth muscle cells from mouse aorta

Adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) activated two sequential responses in freshly isolated mouse aortic smooth muscle cells. In the first phase, ATP activated Ca(2+)-dependent K(+) or Cl(-) currents and the second phase was the activation of a delayed outward current with a reversal potential of -75.9 +/- 1.4 mV. A high concentration of extracellular K(+) (130 mM) shifted the reversal potential of the delayed ATP-elicited current to -3.5 +/- 1.3 mV. The known K(+)-channel blockers, iberiotoxin, charybdotoxin, glibenclamide, apamin, 4-aminopyridine, Ba(2+) and tetraethylammonium chloride all failed to inhibit the delayed ATP-elicited K(+) current. Removal of ATP did not decrease the amplitude of the ATP-elicited current back to the control values. The simultaneous recording of cytosolic free Ca(2+) and membrane currents revealed that the first phase of the ATP-elicited response is associated with an increase in intracellular Ca(2+), while the second delayed phase develops after the return of cytosolic free Ca(2+) to control levels.ATP did not activate Ca(2+)-dependent K(+) currents, but did elicit Ca(2+)-independent K(+) currents, in cells dialyzed with ethylene glycol-bis (2-aminoethylether)-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid (EGTA). The delay of activation of Ca(2+)-independent currents decreased from 10.5 + 3.4 to 1.27 +/- 0.33 min in the cells dialyzed with 2 mM EGTA. Adenosine alone failed to elicit a Ca(2+)-independent K(+) current but simultaneous application of ATP and adenosine activated the delayed K(+) current. Intracellular dialysis of cells with guanosine 5'-O-(2-thiodiphosphate) transformed the Ca(2+)-independent ATP-elicited response from a sustained to a transient one. A phospholipase C inhibitor, U73122 (1 microM), was shown to abolish the delayed ATP-elicited response. These results indicate that the second phase of the ATP-elicited response was a delayed Ca(2+)-independent K(+) current activated by exogenous ATP. This phase might represent a new vasoregulatory pathway in vascular smooth muscle cells.

Cellular Distribution and Functions of P2 Receptor Subtypes in Different Systems

This review is aimed at providing readers with a comprehensive reference article about the distribution and function of P2 receptors in all the organs, tissues, and cells in the body. Each section provides an account of the early history of purinergic signaling in the organ?cell up to 1994, then summarizes subsequent evidence for the presence of P2X and P2Y receptor subtype mRNA and proteins as well as functional data, all fully referenced. A section is included describing the plasticity of expression of P2 receptors during development and aging as well as in various pathophysiological conditions. Finally, there is some discussion of possible future developments in the purinergic signaling field.

Evaluation of reactive blue 2 derivatives as selective antagonists for P2Y receptors

P2Y receptor pharmacology is hampered by a lack of subtype selective antagonists. However, a recent study evaluated series of compounds, structurally related to the dye reactive blue 2, for their antagonist selectivity at P2X vs. P2Y receptors. Acid blue 129, acid blue 80, acid blue 25 and acid violet 34 were found to be the most potent of the antagonists studied, at P2Y receptors [Naunyn Schmiedeberg's Arch. Pharmacol. 357 (1998) 111]. In this study, we have determined the ability of these four agents to selectively antagonize inositol phosphate turnover mediated by P2Y1 and P2Y2 receptors that are natively expressed in bovine aortic endothelial (BAE) cells. Acid blue 129, acid blue 80, and acid violet 34 shifted the dose-response curve of the P2Y1 agonist 2-methylthio adenosine trisphosphate (2MeSATP) to the right. Acid blue 129 and acid blue 80 were also very weak antagonists of the P2Y2 agonist uridine 5'-triphosphate (UTP). At 30 and 100 microM, acid violet 34 failed to have any significant effect on the dose-response to UTP. However, at 10 microM, acid violet 34 enhanced the UTP responses. Acid blue 80, acid blue 129 and acid violet 34 are P2Y vs. P2X selective, but show poor selectivity between P2Y1 and P2Y2 receptors and are therefore of limited use in the field of P2Y receptor pharmacology. Furthermore, contrary to previous reports, acid blue 25 is not a P2Y-selective antagonist.

A theoretical and experimental approach to the use of single wavelength calcium indicators

Fluorescent Ca(2+) indicators have been extremely valuable in understanding the role of intracellular Ca(2+). However, the presence of extracellular dye can confound interpretation of data due to indicator accumulation in the Ca(2+)-rich medium, which induces an increase in the fluorescence signal. By using a mathematical approach, we show that overlooking extracellular dye usually leads to overestimating cytosolic Ca(2+) ([Ca(2+)]) levels. We propose an experimental design and provide mathematical formulations to make the appropriate correction. We applied our model to determine [Ca(2+)] in Fluo-3-loaded bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAECs). Our results indicate that for basal level Ca(2+), the uncorrected value overestimates by a factor of 2.7 the result obtained when extracellular dye was accounted for. We also showed that both bradykinin (BK) and ATP significantly increase [Ca(2+)] in BAECs. For the uncorrected values, BK and ATP induced 2.3- and 3.3-fold apparent increases in [Ca(2+)], respectively. When applying the correction, there was a 4.5- and 5.4-fold induction of [Ca(2+)] for BK and ATP, respectively. Our theoretical and experimental models provide explanations and, at least in part, solutions to the dye leakage problem, and should thus be a valuable tool in clarifying the proper usage of fluorescent dyes for Ca(2+) measurements.

Possible mechanisms underlying pregnancy-induced changes in uterine artery endothelial function

The last 10 years has seen a dramatic increase in our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the pregnancy-specific adaptation in cardiovascular function in general and the dramatic changes that occur in uterine artery endothelium in particular to support the growing fetus. The importance of these changes is clear from a number of studies linking restriction of uterine blood flow (UBF) and/or endothelial dysfunction and clinical conditions such as intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR) and/or preeclampsia in both humans and animal models; these topics are covered only briefly here. The recent developments that prompts this review are twofold. The first is advances in an understanding of the cell signaling processes that regulate endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) in particular (Govers R and Rabelink TJ. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 280: F193-F206, 2001). The second is the emerging picture that uterine artery (UA) endothelial cell production of nitric oxide (NO) as well as prostacyclin (PGI2) may be as much a consequence of cellular reprogramming at the level of cell signaling as due to tonic stimuli inducing changes in the level of expression of eNOS or the enzymes of the PGI2 biosynthetic pathway (cPLA2, COX-1, PGIS). In reviewing just how we came to this conclusion and outlining the implications of such a finding, we draw mostly on data from ovine or human studies, with reference to other species only where directly relevant.

P2y1 and P2y2 receptor-operated Ca2+ signals in primary cultures of cardiac microvascular endothelial cells

Intracellular Ca2+ signals elicited by nucleotide agonists were investigated in primary cultures of rat cardiac microvascular endothelial cells using the fura-2 technique. UTP increased the intracellular [Ca2+] in 94% of the cells, whereas 2MeSATP was active in 32%. The rank order of potency was ATP = UTP > 2MeSATP and the maximal response to 2MeSATP was lower compared to UTP and ATP. ATP and UTP showed strong homologous and heterologous desensitization. ATP fully inhibited the 2MeSATP response, while UTP abolished 2MeSATP-elicited transients in 25% of cells. 2MeSATP did not desensitize the UTP or ATP response. Adenosine 2',5'-diphosphate inhibited the response to 2MeSATP, while it did not modify the response to ATP and UTP. 2MeSATP was more sensitive to suramin than UTP and ATP. These results indicate that P(2Y1) and P(2Y2) receptors may be coexpressed in CMEC. Nucleotide-induced Ca2+ signals lacked a sustained plateau and were almost independent from extracellular Ca2+. ATP and UTP elicited Ca2+ transients longer than 2MeSATP-evoked transients. The kinetics of Ca2+ responses was not affected by bath solution stirring or ectonucleotidase inhibition. Furthermore, the nonhydrolyzable ATP analogue AMP-PNP induced Ca2+ signals similar to those elicited by ATP and UTP. These results suggest that the distinct kinetics of nucleotide-evoked Ca2+ responses do not depend on the activity of ectonucleotidases or ATP autocrine stimulation. The possibility that Ca2+ signals with different time courses may modulate different cellular responses is discussed.

Phosphatidylcholine metabolism in human endothelial cells: modulation by phosphocholine

Phosphatidylcholine is the principal phospholipid in mammalian tissues, and a major source for the production of arachidonic acid. In this study, the effect of exogenous phosphocholine, a precursor of phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis, on the metabolism of phosphatidylcholine in human umbilical vein endothelial cells was investigated. Incubation of endothelial cells with exogenous phosphocholine at concentrations of 1 to 5 mM was found to inhibit choline uptake and its subsequent incorporation into phosphatidylcholine. Phosphocholine appeared to inhibit choline uptake in a competitive manner. Since phosphatidylcholine is metabolized mainly by the action of phospholipase A2, with the release of arachidonic acid and other fatty acids, the effect of phosphocholine on arachidonic acid release in endothelial cells was also examined. The induction of arachidonic acid release by ATP was enhanced in cells treated with 1 mM phosphocholine. In vitro assays of phospholipase A2 activity in cells incubated with phosphocholine, however, did not produced any significant change in the activity of this enzyme. The results of this study show that phosphocholine modulates the biosynthesis and catabolism of phosphatidylcholine in an indirect manner.