Social influences: effects of the social environment on the use of alcohol and other drugs

An Individual-Difference Perspective Applied to Word Association

Most cognitive approaches to word association and some theories of social cognition converge on the notion that the performance of repetitive behaviors should predict word association responses. To study this issue, the authors examined the frequencies of free-association responses of 1, 003 subjects to ambiguous words, some of which had subdominant senses that were linked to repetitive behaviors (e.g., draft and alcohol use). Results showed that three out of four measures of individual differences in repetitive behaviors significantly predicted responses for words linked to their respective behaviors. Gender, age, and language background were controlled for in these analyses. Although cognitive approaches suggested that an experimental manipulation of item presentation (grouped vs. randomly mixed items) should influence responses, this effect was not significant. Implications are discussed in terms of theories of lexical ambiguity and implicit influences of memory for previous experiences.

Twenty-one-year trends and correlates of pressure to change drinking

BACKGROUND

The vast majority of individuals with alcohol problems in the United States and elsewhere do not seek help. One policy response has been to encourage institutions such as criminal justice and social welfare systems to mandate treatment for individuals with alcohol problems (Addiction, 1997;92:1133). However, informal pressures to drink less from family and friends are far more common than institutional pressures mandating treatment (Addiction, 1996;91:643). The prevalence and correlates of these informal pressures have been minimally studied.

METHODS

This analysis used data from 5 Alcohol Research Group National Alcohol Surveys (NAS) collected at approximately 5-year intervals over a 21-year period (1984 to 2005, pooled N = 16,241) to describe the patterns of pressure that drinkers received during the past year from spouse, family, friends, physicians, police, and the workplace.

RESULTS

The overall trend of pressure combining all 6 sources across all 5 NAS data sets indicated a decline. Frequent heavy drinking and alcohol-related harms also declined, and both were strong predictors of receiving pressure. Trends among different sources varied. In multivariate regression models, pressure from friends showed an increase. Pressure from spouse and family showed a relatively flat trajectory, with the exception of a spike in pressure from family in 1990.

CONCLUSIONS

The trajectory of decreasing of pressure over time is most likely the result of decreases in heavy drinking and alcohol-related harm. Pressure was generally targeted toward higher risk drinkers, such as heavy drinkers and those reporting alcohol-related harm. However, demographic findings suggest that the social context of drinking might also be a determinant of receiving pressure. Additional studies should identify when pressure is associated with decreased drinking and increased help seeking.

Comparison of indirect assessments of association as predictors of marijuana use among at-risk adolescents

In this study, the authors compared indirect measures that attempt to quantify the level of marijuana associations among adolescents. They also evaluated whether these various methods overlap or tap different aspects of associative processes that may act in concert to influence marijuana use. Automatic drug-relevant associations were assessed in 121 at-risk youth in continuation high schools in California with the use of a word association index and computer-based, reaction time measures (i.e., Implicit Association Test [IAT] and Extrinsic Affective Simon Task [EAST]). Measures of working memory capacity, sensation seeking, and explicit cognitions also were included in analyses as potential confounders. The word association index and the marijuana IAT excited D measure were significant predictors of marijuana use. The word association index accounted for more variance in marijuana use than did the IAT or EAST measures. Further, confirmatory factor analytic models of the indirect measures of marijuana use revealed a significant moderate correlation between the EAST Excitement and Word Association factors but no significant correlations between the Word Association and IAT factors. These findings suggest that there is some convergence among the different indirect measures, but these assessments also appear to tap different aspects of associative processes. The types of indirect measures evaluated in this work provide information about spontaneous cognitions related to substance use, capturing influences on behavior that are not evaluated with traditional explicit assessments of behavior. Findings from this work add to a growing body of research that implicates the importance of implicit associative processes in risk and health behaviors.

Sober living houses: potential roles in substance abuse services and suggestions for research

'Sober living houses' are alcohol- and drug-free residences for individuals attempting to establish or maintain sobriety. They offer no formal treatment services but do provide social support and an abstinent living environment. 'Sober living houses' have been used as aftercare placements for clients completing residential treatment, places for clients to live while attending outpatient treatment, or as stand-alone approaches for substance misuse problems. This article identifies areas of research needing attention and suggests that 'sober living houses' have the potential to play a stronger role in the continuum of substance misuse services.

Personality, Environment, and Problem Drug Use

We tested a theoretical model that posited direct and Interactive relationships between personality and environment as predictive of problem drug use. Hierarchical regression analyses were performed on data from a nonclinical sample of males and females first tested in adolescence and followed into young adulthood. In main effects analyses, cross-sectional models for marijuana and a composite of “harder” drugs strongly supported our theoretical perspective: several environmental and personality variables significantly predicted concurrent problem use. Longitudinal analyses produced mixed results, with either smaller numbers of significant personality/environment predictors or personality predictors dropping out completely. Peer drug use and depression best predicted problem “hard” drug use, while motivations to use with others and disinhibition best predicted problem marijuana use. Personality/peer group interactions were significant both cross-sectionally and longitudinally, indicating that membership in a problem-using social network enhanced the predictive ability of, or helped bring to fruition, several personality predisposers.

A population-based study of age and gender differences in patterns of health-related behaviors

PURPOSE

Most research on preventive health behaviors has focused on individual rather than groups of behaviors. This study examined interrelationships among multiple preventive health behaviors in different age and gender groups.

METHODS

From 1990 to 1992, Maryland residents were surveyed by telephone through the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. The study sample of 4455 was divided into 8 groups based on age (18-24, 25-39, 40-54, and 55+) and gender. Correlation and oblique rotated factor analyses were used to examine patterns of 8 to 11 preventive health behaviors in each age-gender group.

RESULTS

Medical checkup and cholesterol test formed one behavioral cluster in the four male age groups. Breast and cervical cancer screening (mammogram, clinical breast examination [CBE], and Pap Smear) did not form one cluster until age 55 or older; Pap smear, CBE formed one cluster for women of all ages. Risk-taking behaviors were only prominent in the youngest age group: Seatbelt non-use, smoking, and drinking formed one cluster in younger males, and drinking and driving after drinking clustered in younger females.

CONCLUSION

Screening and risk-taking behaviors form distinct groups, and behavioral patterns differ by age and gender. Public health programs should consider multi-behavioral approaches, and be sensitive to the gender and age of the target population.

The substance use system: social and neighborhood environments associated with substance use and misuse

Substance use theory and practice have traditionally focused on individuals who misuse substances or who are at risk for substance misuse, but this emphasis is shifting. The present study views both substance use and misuse systematically, assessing the relationships between the physical and social environments and substance use and misuse in dynamic interplay. This substance use system was examined through a survey of approximately 10,000 persons, aged 22-44, from primarily inner-city neighborhoods in the United States. Individual indicators such as race, sex, age, socioeconomic status, education, and religious service attendance relate to both the physical and interpersonal environments, even when each is controlled for the others. Qualities of both environments are strongly associated with substance dependency, even after individual indicators are controlled. These findings suggest the difficulty of bringing about change in drug and alcohol use without fundamental change in the environments where use takes place.