Elizabeth Usher Memorial Lecture: Language is literacy is language - Positioning speech-language pathology in education policy, practice, paradigms and polemics

Teachers' perspectives on the role and scope of practice of speech-language pathologists working to support literacy in the early years of school

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to explore the views of teachers in early year levels about the role and scope for speech-language pathologists (SLPs) to work on literacy support in schools.Method: Sixty-one teachers from mainstream government schools across Victoria, Australia, completed an anonymous, online survey.Result: Although many respondents reported knowing that SLPs support the literacy learning of some students in their school, they had limited awareness of the scope of speech-language pathology practice in literacy instruction and intervention.Conclusion: Limited awareness of SLPs' expertise and scope of practice may be leading to missed opportunities for collaborative practices. In order to capitalise on SLPs' skill set for the benefit of students, the speech-language pathology profession should better promote and raise awareness of the various ways in which SLPs can collaborate within interprofessional literacy teams in schools.

Oral language enrichment in preschool improves children's language skills: a cluster randomised controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Oral language skills provide the foundation for formal education, yet many children enter school with language weaknesses. This study evaluated the efficacy of a new language enrichment programme, the Nuffield Early Language Intervention-Preschool (NELI Preschool), delivered to children in the year before they enter formal education.

METHODS

We conducted a preregistered cluster randomised controlled trial in 65 nursery schools in England (https://doi.org/10.1186/ISRCTN29838552). NELI Preschool consists of a 20-week whole-class language enrichment programme delivered by a teacher each day for 20 min. In addition, children with the weakest language skills in each class are allocated to receive additional targeted support delivered by classroom assistants (whole-class + targeted). The language skills of all children (n = 1,586) in participating classrooms were assessed using the LanguageScreen automated app (https://oxedandassessment.com/languagescreen/). Settings were then randomly allocated to an intervention or control group. The children with the weakest language in each class (whole-class + targeted children n = 438), along with four randomly selected children in each class allocated to the whole-class only programme (n = 288) were individually tested on a range of language measures.

RESULTS

Children receiving NELI Preschool made larger gains than children in the control group on an oral language latent variable (whole-class children d = .26; whole-class + targeted children d = .16).

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides good evidence that whole-class intervention delivered in preschool can produce educationally significant improvements in children's language skills. The intervention is scaleable and relatively low cost. These findings have important implications for educational and social policy.

A systematic scoping review of the literacy skills of children with childhood apraxia of speech: Recommendations for best practice and further research

PURPOSE

Little is known about the literacy skills of children with childhood apraxia of speech (CAS) or effective methods for teaching them to read. This systematic scoping review aimed to synthesise what is known about this issue.

METHOD

Nine databases were searched to identify relevant articles. Included articles were categorised by study design, quality, and confidence of CAS diagnosis.

RESULT

Twenty-three articles were included, 17 described literacy skills of children with CAS and six trialled literacy interventions. Children with CAS had early skills deficits that manifest as literacy difficulties in the later school years and beyond. They frequently had poorer outcomes compared with both typical readers and children with other speech disorders. Both the extent of literacy impairment and responsiveness to intervention appear to be related to the severity of speech impairment. Four literacy interventions for children with CAS were identified.

CONCLUSIONS

Children with CAS are at high risk of literacy difficulty and may require early literacy intervention to help them attain academic success. Further research is warranted to determine the longer-term literacy outcomes of children with CAS, appropriate means of assessment, and whether a systematic synthetic phonics approach is an effective form of literacy instruction for this population.

Language and early literacy professional development: A complex intervention for early childhood educators and speech-language pathologists

Purpose: Improving language and literacy skills in preschoolers can lead to better life outcomes. One way speech-language pathologists (SLPs) can improve these skills in preschoolers is by supporting educators through professional development (PD). However, PD in early childhood education and care (ECEC) settings is a complex intervention. To improve preschoolers' language and literacy skills using PD, SLPs must first work with educators to change or increase educators' language and literacy-promoting behaviours. This paper aimed to describe educator behaviours and preschooler skills following a real-world language and literacy PD intervention facilitated by two community SLPs.Method: Two pragmatic studies were conducted across four ECEC centres: (1) an observation study of 13 educators' self-reported language and literacy promoting behaviours, and (2) a non-randomised controlled trial investigating the language and literacy skills of 82 preschoolers as reported by their educators and parents/carers.Result: After the intervention, educators rated themselves as performing language and literacy-promoting behaviours more frequently. Educators also rated the early reading skills of preschoolers more highly after the PD intervention, but not preschoolers' oral language or early writing skills. Parents/carers did not report any significant improvements in preschoolers' skills.Conclusion: PD as an SLP intervention, whilst promising, showed mixed outcomes. Educator outcomes improved; however, preschooler outcomes were varied.

"There's been a huge change": Educator experiences of a whole-school SLP-led project to address developmental language disorder in three Australian secondary schools

PURPOSE

Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) remains prevalent for secondary school students and continues to compromise educational, social and vocational outcomes within and beyond school. Community-based approaches to service provision are needed to use speech-language pathology resources effectively in realising benefits for this student population. Our article focusses on educator experiences of a whole-school project facilitated by a speech-language pathologist (SLP) to address DLD in secondary school settings.

METHOD

Twenty-one educators were interviewed across three schools to understand their perceptions and experiences of the project and their view(s) of what assisted or compromised early implementation. Data were analysed inductively to develop key themes.

RESULT

Educators reported gaining increased knowledge and awareness of DLD, which supported a reframing of their perceptions of student behaviour and learning issues. They identified the project provided them with ready skills and tools to change their practice, realised learning benefits for all the students they taught, aligned with broader school initiatives, and overcame potential challenges to supporting project implementation.

CONCLUSION

Overall, the educators found the project and implementation of strategies doable, acceptable, important, and sustainable. We explore the features of project design that appeared to contribute to educators' positive experience of the project. This knowledge will be helpful for SLPs using innovative service approaches in classroom settings.

Moving beyond our borders to inspire education change

PURPOSE

This paper contextualises a keynote address delivered at the 2022 Speech Pathology Australia National Conference in Melbourne, Australia. The paper aligns with the conference theme of Beyond Borders from the perspective of moving beyond borders of regular practice to develop strong partnerships and networks within our communities to advocate and support necessary change.

METHOD

Change or enhancement to current practice is necessary if we are to reduce current inequities in education experienced by many children in our communities, including those with communication challenges. Strengths-based and culturally responsive literacy approaches to supporting children within the context of their family and community are increasingly gaining support as we address this challenge. The Better Start Literacy Approach (Te Ara Reo Matatini), currently being implemented in junior school classrooms across New Zealand is described. It is one example of large-scale implementation of a strengths-based and culturally responsive early literacy approach, based on the science of reading.

RESULT

Data support the effectiveness of the Better Start Literacy Approach in significantly enhancing the foundational literacy skills of 5- and 6-year-old children, including those who commence school with lower levels of oral language ability.

CONCLUSION

Through establishing strong partnerships within communities, speech pathologists have much to offer in motivating systems level change to enhance early literacy success for all learners.

An exploratory study of speech-language pathologists' clinical practice in the literacy domain: Comparing onsite practices with telepractice services during COVID-19

PURPOSE

To explore speech-language pathologists' (SLP) practice in literacy prior to, and during, COVID-19 to understand the practicalities, feasibility and sustainability of telepractice literacy services.

METHOD

This exploratory study employed a cross-sectional survey comprising 46 questions covering participants' caseload profile and service delivery models, their assessment and intervention practices and telepractice delivery of literacy services.

RESULT

Participants were 44 SLPs working primarily in private practice and education with children and adolescents. Students with literacy difficulties comprised a significant proportion of SLPs' caseloads. Individual and group sessions were the most common format of delivery prior to COVID-19. In a telepractice model during COVID-19, SLPs saw fewer students overall. Most provided individual sessions only and reported cancellation of group sessions. SLPs described their practice in literacy as being aligned with evidence-based principles. A range of resources were used for literacy assessment and intervention. For most, their usual practice changed for telepractice. Many felt underprepared to use telepractice and experienced numerous challenges mostly relating to technology and family engagement.

CONCLUSION

Literacy has become a core area of practice for SLPs; however, continued advocacy towards consultative and collaborative services is needed within onsite and telepractice models. Telepractice required SLPs to develop additional skills and modify usual practice. Despite experiencing challenges, many indicated they would continue with telepractice given its perceived benefits.

Reporting of Classroom-Based Morphological Awareness Instruction and Intervention for Kindergarten to Grade 3 Students in the Literature: A Scoping Review

PURPOSE

The purpose of this scoping review was to document how the literature reports morphological awareness instruction and interventions delivered by speech-language pathologists (SLPs) and/or educators in classroom settings for kindergarten to Grade 3 students.

METHOD

We followed the Joanna Briggs Institute's methodology for scoping reviews and the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews reporting guidelines. Six relevant databases were searched systematically with article screening and selection completed by two reviewers calibrated for reliability. For data charting, one reviewer extracted content and a second reviewer verified it was pertinent to the review question. Charting for the reported elements of morphological awareness instruction and interventions was guided by the Rehabilitation Treatment Specification System.

RESULTS

The database search yielded 4,492 records. After removal of duplicates and screening, 47 articles were selected for inclusion. Interrater reliability for source selection exceeded the pre-established criterion of k = .61. Our analysis generated a comprehensive description of the elements of morphological awareness instruction as reported in the included articles.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings provide school-based SLPs and educators a systematic means of reviewing the literature to identify key elements of morphological awareness instruction in published articles for application of evidence-based practices with fidelity, thus helping to close the research-to-practice gap. Our manifest content analysis revealed reporting of the elements for classroom-based morphological awareness instruction was varied, and in some cases, underspecified in the articles included in our study. Implications for clinical practice and future research to advance knowledge and promote implementation of evidence-based practices by SLPs and educators in today's classrooms are discussed.

SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL

https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.22105142.

Think-Aloud: Effect on Adolescent Deaf Students' Use of Reading Comprehension Strategies

This study examined the effect of explicit instruction of reading comprehension strategies, such as identification of unknown vocabulary and relating text to background knowledge, on four deaf and hard of hearing students' use of strategies and reading comprehension performance pre- and post-intervention. Explicit instruction of strategies consisted of discussion of targeted strategies and think-aloud (verbalizing one's thought processes while reading) to model strategies. The data presented is from a more in-depth study completed during the 2017-2018 academic year. Few studies have implemented think-aloud in evaluating deaf adolescents' reading challenges and the efficacy of strategy use. This study provided insight into both of these issues. Results show an increase in the variety of strategies used by students and frequency of strategy use post-intervention. Results also indicate improved comprehension scores for two students. Close examination of the data, however, reveals ongoing metacognitive challenges (such as lack of consistent identification of key unknown words and lack of awareness of comprehension breakdowns) and inconsistency in the efficacious use of strategies. Findings indicate a need for ongoing assessment of the depth and efficacy of strategy use and individualized instruction.

Expository discourse skills of students with reading comprehension difficulties

Purpose: The ability to produce expository discourse (the use of language to convey information) is important for classroom participation and access to the curriculum, particularly during the middle school years. This study investigated the spoken expository discourse skills of students with reading comprehension (RC) difficulties compared to their peers with average reading skills.Method: In this study, we administered a modified favourite game or sport (M-FGS) task developed by Heilmann and Malone to 48 students who were in their fifth year of schooling (9.33 - 11.11 years of age). Expository language samples were transcribed and analysed on measures of (a) microstructure: syntax (MLU in words) and vocabulary (number of different words [NDW]); and (b) macrostructure (Expository Scoring Scheme [ESS]).Result: Compared to their peers with average RC skills, students with RC difficulties demonstrated significant difficulties at the micro- and macro-structure levels. Subgroup analysis revealed the importance of spoken language comprehension proficiency (at text level) for expository discourse skills.Conclusion: The results from this small-scale investigation demonstrated the usefulness of the M-FGS task in describing challenges in expository discourse of students with RC difficulties, with clear implications for intervention.

A stitch in time…: Comparing late-identified, late-emerging and early-identified dyslexia

When dyslexia is diagnosed late, the question is whether this is due to late-emerging (LE) or late-identified (LI) problems. In a random selection of dyslexia-diagnosis case files we distinguished early-diagnosed (Grade 1-3, n = 116) and late-diagnosed (Grade 4-6) dyslexia. The late-diagnosed files were divided into LE (n = 54) and LI dyslexia (n = 45). The LE group consisted of children whose national-curriculum literacy outcomes did not warrant referral for dyslexia diagnosis in Grades 1-2; the LI group of children whose literacy outcomes did, but who were referred for diagnostic assessment after Grade 3. At the time of diagnosis, the percentage of poor performers on word-level literacy measures generally did not differ between the groups. Only the LE group contained fewer poor performers than the early-diagnosed and LI group on some word-reading measures. All groups showed similar distributions of phonological difficulties. There were no indications of compensation through vocabulary, memory or IQ in either late-diagnosed group. Our diagnosis-based study confirms and extends previous research-based studies on LE dyslexia. Moreover, it shows that LI dyslexia exists, which can be regarded as the existence of instructional casualties. The findings speak to issues of identification, diagnosis and compensation and call for further efforts to improve the early identification of dyslexia.

Literacy instruction for autistic children who speak languages other than English

LAY ABSTRACT

Many autistic children across the globe speak languages other than English. However, much of the research about teaching children with autism to read and write is derived from studies including people who speak English and no other languages. Here, we review the research on teaching children with autism to read and write in languages other than English. We did this because the world's languages, and the ways they are represented in written form, vary greatly. A broader overview that encompasses languages other than English can help us better understand how learning to read and write can be supported for autistic children around the world. The studies included in our review highlight some potential differences in effective literacy teaching for autistic children learning to read and write using different writing systems. The studies we reviewed tended to include relatively small samples of autistic children, among other limitations. We hope that our review will increase awareness and research efforts in the area of autism and global literacy.

Meeting the communication needs of students on the autism spectrum in Australian classrooms: Adjustments reported by educators and specialists

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to examine educators' and specialists' provision of communication adjustments for students on the autism spectrum in mainstream and supported education settings.

METHOD

Secondary analysis of data collected from educators and specialists in the Australian Autism Educational Needs Analysis was undertaken. Thematic analysis of adjustment descriptions identified 11 categories. The use of the 11 specific adjustment categories with reference to (a) participant group (educator versus specialists), and (b) setting (mainstream versus supported) were described and associations investigated using Chi-square analyses.

RESULT

Only 32% of the 381 educators and specialists reported using adjustments. Of the adjustments reported, those categorised as "Multimodal Communication", "Structured Teaching", and "Assistive Technology" were frequently included by both groups. Significant associations were apparent between groups and the use of specific adjustments including naturalistic communication strategies. Significant differences were evident in the proportion of specific adjustments used by participants in supported as opposed to mainstream settings.

CONCLUSION

Possible reasons for the differences in the adjustments reported by educators and specialists and the role that setting may play in these are discussed. These include resourcing, the choice of adjustment being driven by school setting rather than student need, and possible differences between professionals in describing the adjustments made.

The Promise of Comprehensive Early Reading Instruction for Children With Autism and Recommendations for Future Directions

Purpose

Children with autism have an increased likelihood of reading difficulties. The reasons for this are numerous and varied, but many children with autism can learn to read when they are provided with evidence-based early reading instruction.

Method

Here, we provide an overview of some of the factors that impact early reading development for children with autism and a rationale for the provision of comprehensive early reading instruction consistent with the recommendations of the National Reading Panel (NRP). We discuss research on NRP instruction for children with autism, including some of our own empirical studies. We also discuss some areas of research that were not emphasized by the NRP but that we view as important. We offer recommendations that extend beyond NRP guidelines in order to advance knowledge and improve practice.

Conclusions

Comprehensive early reading instruction holds great promise for children with autism, but there are gaps in our understanding that need to be addressed. These include the most effective method(s) for tailoring reading instruction to the needs of the individual while optimizing delivery to small groups of children, supporting skills and making other accommodations not outlined by the NRP, and consideration of bilingualism and of reading instruction in languages other than English, among other issues. While our focus in this review article is early reading instruction for children with autism who use oral language, we acknowledge that there is a major gap in the literature concerning reading instruction for those who do not use oral language. We hope that this review article will be helpful to clinicians, educators, and researchers alike, as well as children with autism and their families, friends, and support networks.

Perceptions of Pacific children's academic performance at age 6 years: A multi-informant agreement study

Purpose

In New Zealand, Pacific immigrants are among the fastest growing ethnic minorities but, as a group, they are also at most risk of not realising their literacy and educational aspirations critical for achieving their human potential and wellbeing. This may be due, in part, to a misalignment in the shared understanding of academic success between students, parents and their teachers within largely non-Pacific school environments. This study aims to report levels of agreement in child-mother, child-teacher, and mother-teacher perceptions of Pacific children’s academic performance at age 6 years.

Method

A cohort of Pacific infants born during 2000 in Auckland, New Zealand, was followed as part of the Pacific Islands Families study. Maternal home interviews were conducted at 6-weeks and 6-years postpartum, together with separate child and teacher elicitations at 6-years. Pairwise agreement of academic performance responses was assessed using Cohen’s weighted κ statistic, along with symmetry and marginal homogeneity tests.

Results

At 6-years, information was available for 1,001 children and their mothers, and teachers’ evaluations for 549 children. Negligible to slight agreements and significant asymmetry were found between the child-mother (κ = 0.03, 95% CI: -0.03, 0.09), child-teacher (κ = 0.04, 95% CI: 0.01, 0.08), and mother-teacher (κ = 0.07, 95% CI: 0.03, 0.11) pairwise assessments–with children and mothers more likely to rate Pacific children’s academic performance higher than their teachers. Significantly higher concordances with teacher assessments were found among mothers with post-secondary education, proficiency in English, and stronger alignment with New Zealand culture and for children who performed strongly on a standardised measure of performance relative to their peers.

Conclusion

Strategies are needed to align Pacific students’ and parental perceptions with documented educational achievement outcomes and to facilitate more effective and timely feedback on achievement results and home-school communication. The importance of removing language, cultural and socio-economic barriers to achieving shared understanding of academic performance between teachers and families is highlighted.

The School-Based Speech-Language Pathologist's Role in Diverting the School-to-Confinement Pipeline for Youth With Communication Disorders

Purpose

The overarching aim of this article is to discuss the intersectionality of the school-to-confinement pipeline and its detrimental effect on the societal and academic success of youth with communication disorders. Communication disorders in youth with behavior concerns or placed at risk for delinquency that is not adequately addressed by a speech-language pathologist (SLP) can increase the youth's involvement with the school-to-confinement pipeline, resulting in a dire need for the intervention of the SLP to intervene on the language-based needs of this population. However, the role of the United States—based SLPs in interrupting the school-to-confinement pipeline has not yet been clearly defined and recognized.

Method

This article will (a) discuss why the role of the SLP providing language intervention for youth placed at risk for delinquency or involved with the criminal justice system is necessary, (b) discuss the definition of the school-to-confinement pipeline, (c) examine the impact of the school-to-confinement pipeline on youth with communication disorders, and (d) highlight a framework for cognitive and language-based intervention that may promote positive outcomes.

Results

The SLP's role in interrupting the school-to-confinement pipeline is vital to providing and increasing the societal and academic success of youth with communication disorders placed at risk for delinquency and should consider multiple factors such as (a) SLPs becoming an active and integral member of the individualized education plan team, (b) SLPs advocating for opportunities to collaborate and interact with the youth as an integral member of the individualized education plan team, and (c) SLPs creating consistent and streamlined opportunities for culturally relevant goals and intervention that increase the student's academic and societal success.

Conclusion

There are many reasons why the SLPs' role in interrupting the school-to-confinement pipeline cannot be ignored or overlooked. As a profession in the United States, speech-language pathology is in the early stages of developing a stronger stance for advocacy and understanding the communication needs of youth on the SLP's caseload who are at risk for the school-to-confinement pipeline. Nonetheless, increasing how SLPs approach and intervene on behalf of students with communication disorders may produce better outcomes for youth-at-risk for the school-to-confinement pipeline.

The oral language and reading comprehension skills of adolescents in flexible learning programmes

Purpose: Access to flexible learning programmes (FLPs) for students who have been excluded or diverted from mainstream school settings is increasing internationally. While still technically "engaged with education" such students face long-term vulnerability with respect to acquiring marketable employment skills post-school. Language and literacy skills are central to such training; hence, this study describes the oral language and reading comprehension profiles of a sample of flexible learning programmes (FLP) students.Method: Fifty young people (mean age 16 years) enrolled in three FLPs in Victoria, Australia were assessed by a speech-language pathologist in order to profile their oral language and reading comprehension skills.Result: Seventy-two percent of participants had oral language skills that placed them in an at-risk range on standardised measures, and 47.5% had reading comprehension ages of ≤12 years. A moderate significant association existed between oral language and reading comprehension skills.Conclusion: Language and reading comprehension difficulties are prevalent in this population and may be missed in the context of the mental health and adjustment difficulties experienced by this group, but are likely to be key to academic engagement and success. Speech-language pathology scope of practice needs to include FLP settings.

Narrative language skills of maltreated children living in out-of-home care

Purpose: Children's narrative accounts of their experiences are central to the prosecution of perpetrators of alleged maltreatment. We describe the narrative language skills of children who were placed in out-of-home care (OOHC) following substantiated maltreatment. It was hypothesised that (i) children with such histories would display narrative language skills that fall significantly below published age-expected norms, (ii) narrative language skills and core language skills would be positively correlated and (iii) narrative language skills would be associated with measures of socio-economic disadvantage.Method: Eighty-three children (40 males and 43 females) aged 5;3 to 12;10 (M = 7.9, SD = 2.3) from English-speaking home backgrounds were assessed using the Test of Narrative Language and the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals (CELF-4) Core Language Score. The Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices, a measure of nonverbal intelligence, was employed as a covariate.Result: Forty-two percent of children scored in the below-average range on the Narrative Language Index Ability Index. The same proportion scored at/above age-expected levels on the Narrative Comprehension subtest, and 19% scored at/above age-expected levels on Oral Narration. There was a significant correlation between CELF-4 Core Language Scores and the Narrative Language Index Ability Index. Female carers' education was significantly positively associated with overall narrative language scores; however, household income and index of socio-economic disadvantage were not significantly associated with narrative language scores.Conclusion: Children who are victims of substantiated maltreatment should be considered at-risk for compromised ability to provide a narrative account of their experiences. The heterogeneity and often scant oral narrative language skills of these children highlights the importance of police/human services training on best-practice forensic interviewing. Policy and practice implications for speech-language pathology early intervention to support the needs of at-risk children are also discussed.

Speech-Language Pathology and the Youth Offender: Epidemiological Overview and Roadmap for Future Speech-Language Pathology Research and Scope of Practice

Purpose

This article is concerned with the growing body of international evidence indicating that adolescents in contact with the youth justice system are likely to have severely compromised oral language skills, receptively and expressively. A smaller, but persuasive, literature also points to poor literacy skills in this population. Language and literacy skills underpin academic, social, and vocational success ( C. Snow, 1983 ; P. C. Snow, 2016 ; Snowling & Hulme, 2012 ) and are central to the professional expertise of speech-language pathology as a profession ( P. C. Snow, 2016 ).

Method

In this article, I review the epidemiology of youth offending together with research evidence concerning the language and literacy skills of this population. I outline the major practice and research implications of these findings for speech-language pathology as a profession, considering the “school-to-prison pipeline” via key domains of early years' reading instruction, young people's passage through the justice system, restorative justice processes, and design and delivery of language and literacy interventions for young people on youth justice orders.

Results

Implications for speech-language pathology scope of practice and future research are outlined.

Conclusions

Speech-language pathology as a profession has a significant role to play in advocating for vulnerable young people at each point in the school-to-prison pipeline. This includes strengthening the evidence base concerning speech-language pathology language and literacy interventions and lobbying governments to fund speech-language pathology services to address the complex communication needs of this population, both on community-based and custodial orders.

The impact of speech and language problems in kindergarten on academic learning and special education status in grade three

PURPOSE

This study addressed the implications of experiencing early speech-language pathologies (SLPs) in kindergarten on special education needs (SEN) and academic outcomes in grade three.

METHOD

Early Development Instrument (EDI) kindergarten data on development and the presence or absence of SLPs were matched with grade three school-system standardised tests of reading, writing and maths, and SEN classification in Ontario, Canada for 59 015 students. Children were classified as having a Persistent speech language pathology (SLP), Remittent SLP, Latent SEN or as a typically developing Control.

RESULT

Even though 72.3% of children's SLPs remitted by grade three, kindergarten SLPs conveyed higher likelihood of having an SEN, and of lower achievement levels in grade three. The degree of impact varied between Persistent and Remittent groups. Children in the Latent group had lower scores in kindergarten on all five EDI domains than Control children.

CONCLUSION

These population level results provide strong evidence to indicate that all children who present with an SLP in kindergarten face further academic challenges, even if their SLP resolves over time. Findings have implications for early intervention and treatment for children with early SLPs.

Speech-language pathology intervention in a youth justice setting: Benefits perceived by staff extend beyond communication

PURPOSE

Young people in youth justice (YJ) settings face high-risk for unidentified language disorder, however, speech-language pathology (SLP) services are not routinely offered in such settings. The aim of this study was to explore and describe the perceptions and experiences of YJ staff in a custodial centre of the utility of having a speech-language pathologist working with young offenders.

METHOD

Following a SLP intervention trial, two staff focus groups were conducted by an independent SLP. Interview probes were developed through review of the literature and consultation with the practitioner who conducted the clinical intervention. Focus groups were digitally recorded for thematic analysis, which was carried out by the three authors independently.

RESULT

YJ staff expressed consistently positive views about the SLP intervention trial in their centre. Staff indicated that they learnt a great deal about the complexity of communication difficulties in this population, and that this information informed and guided their own practices. They expressed surprise at the engagement of young people in the SLP service, and supported its embedding in the YJ setting.

CONCLUSION

YJ staff endorsed the value of a SLP service in a custodial setting. Further research should focus on refining measurement of this service and its impact.

Classroom Promotion of Oral Language (CPOL): protocol for a cluster randomised controlled trial of a school-based intervention to improve children's literacy outcomes at grade 3, oral language and mental health

INTRODUCTION

Oral language and literacy competence are major influences on children's developmental pathways and life success. Children who do not develop the necessary language and literacy skills in the early years of school then go on to face long-term difficulties. Improving teacher effectiveness may be a critical step in lifting oral language and literacy outcomes. The Classroom Promotion of Oral Language trial aims to determine whether a specifically designed teacher professional learning programme focusing on promoting oral language can lead to improved teacher knowledge and practice, and advance outcomes in oral language and literacy for early years school children, compared with usual practice.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

This is a two-arm cluster multisite randomised controlled trial conducted within Catholic and Government primary schools across Victoria, Australia. The intervention comprises 4 days of face-to-face professional learning for teachers and ongoing implementation support via a specific worker. The primary outcome is reading ability of the students at grade 3, and the secondary outcomes are teacher knowledge and practice, student mental health, reading comprehension and language ability at grade 1; and literacy, writing and numeracy at grade 3. Economic evaluation will compare the incremental costs of the intervention to the measured primary and secondary outcomes.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

This trial was approved by the Monash University Human Research Ethics Committee #CF13/2634-2013001403 and later transferred to the University of Melbourne #1545540. The investigators (including Government and Catholic partners) will communicate trial results to stakeholders, collaborators and participating schools and teachers via appropriate presentations and publications.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

ISRCTN77681972; Pre-results.

Intervening to address communication difficulties in incarcerated youth: A Phase 1 clinical trial

PURPOSE

Although a number of studies have described high rates of wide-ranging language difficulties in youth offender samples, minimal intervention research has been conducted with this population. The aim of this study was to implement a small-scale speech-language pathology (SLP) intervention study in a secure youth justice facility and to identify key practical challenges associated with conducting SLP interventions in youth custodial settings.

METHOD

Six young males were recruited and underwent assessment via a range of standardised and self-report communication measures. Measures of nonverbal IQ and of therapeutic engagement were also employed, and participants' own goals concerning communication competence were incorporated into treatment. Participants completed seven to 16 weeks' of 1:1 SLP intervention, once or twice per week.

RESULT

Therapeutic engagement was generally strong. All participants made gains and responded favourably regarding the usefulness of the intervention. Many practical issues conspired to make this a challenging SLP intervention setting.

CONCLUSION

Youth custodial sentences represent an important opportunity for high-risk youths with compromised communication skills to receive specialist SLP therapeutic services to reduce the impact of their communication difficulties post-release into the community.

Language XX: What shall it be called and why does it matter?

Terms suggested for unexpected language learning difficulty include specific language impairment, primary language disorder and language learning disability; however, none of them represents the critical element of literacy. Some experts have suggested that debating what to call language disorders is parallel to debating what to call reading disorders and dyslexia. In contrast, it is argued here that reading disorders are language disorders and not separate or parallel. Evidence is presented for quadrant models that explain language disorders and dyslexia along two dimensions-sound/word level (phonological) knowledge and sentence/discourse level (non-phonological) knowledge. Support for these two dimensions comes from factor analysis of a new assessment tool called the Test of Integrated Language and Literacy Skills (TILLS). Two case studies illustrate how a quadrant model can be used to explain patterns of abilities that vary along these two dimensions to parents and teachers. The article concludes with a recommendation to adopt a label that reflects language/literacy commonalities rather than differences, such as language/literacy disorder or specific language/literacy impairment.