Faculty development: principles and practices

Comparing observed and preferred instruction in robotic surgery

BACKGROUND

The unique setup of robotic surgery challenges the traditional instructional dynamic between surgical learners and teachers. Previous studies have posited difficulties such as reliance on observational learning and ease of takeover. However, we lack understanding of how these instructional challenges manifest and are perceived by learners. Improving instruction has the potential to optimize education and performance in robotic surgery.

METHODS

In this qualitative study, we conducted robotic case observations and learner interviews focusing on instruction in robotic surgery. We deductively generated codes in a theory-informed manner after review of the instructional literature in surgery, medicine, and other fields. We applied these codes in a rigorous directed content analysis of field notes and transcripts to identify themes.

RESULTS

Thirty-eight faculty, fellows, and residents participated in 10 robotic cases and 20 semistructured interviews. Observed practices on the basis of case observations differed substantially from preferred practices on the basis of interview data. Using 37 codes, we identified 4 main themes related to instruction in robotic surgery: contextualization, individualization, autonomy, and multimodality. We contrasted observed and preferred instruction in each of these areas to generate instructional considerations that may better align preferences and practices.

CONCLUSIONS

We observed several suboptimal instructional practices that contradicted preferred ways of learning. We suggested robotic-specific instructional considerations such as using multimodality to promote active learning and to reduce ambiguity. We also provided considerations applicable to all types of surgery, such as to include rationale to promote learning consolidation and to frame operative steps to allow trainees to plan their participation.

Developing a programmatic approach to faculty development and scholarship using the ASPIRE criteria: AMEE Guide No. 165

Faculty Development (FD) has become essential in shaping design, delivery and quality assurance of health professions education. The growth of FD worldwide has led to a heightened expectation for quality and organizational integrity in the delivery of FD programmes. To address this, AMEE, An International Association for Health Professions Education, developed quality standards for FD through the development of the AMEE ASPIRE to Excellence criteria. This guide uses the ASPIRE criteria as a framework for health professions educators who wish to establish or expand approaches to FD delivery and scholarship within their institutions.

Nursing faculty development program for digital teaching competence

BACKGROUND

Nursing faculties need to develop digital competencies to effectively use information, communication, and technology-based nursing education.

PURPOSE

The study aimed to develop and apply a theory-guided faculty development program on digital teaching competencies.

METHODS

A faculty development program was developed. Between March and April 2020, three five-hour web workshops participated by ninety-three faculty members were held. The program was assessed via mixed methods, combining satisfaction surveys post-workshop with content analysis of open-ended questionnaires to gauge participant evaluation of program content and learning experience.

RESULTS

Participants were highly satisfied with the program contents and their opportunity for integrating digital technology into education and improving faculty proficiency in digital teaching technology.

CONCLUSIONS

The program provides faculties with the self-confidence and essential skills to teach students using information, communication, and technology-based nursing education by enhancing their digital teaching competencies. It is critical to integrate both digital proficiency and nursing practice education.

Situations that prompt teachers in problem-based curricula to reflect on their beliefs, identity and mission

Teachers have different perceptions of how to enhance student learning. Whereas some take a teacher-centred perspective, others lean more towards a student-centred approach. Many studies in higher education have invoked Korthagen's onion model (2014) to explain how teachers' perspectives can impact their teaching practices. Spanning six interrelated layers, this model contains both outer (environment, behaviour, competencies) and inner (beliefs, identity, and mission) aspects. Focusing essentially on teachers' outer aspects, previous studies have paid scant attention to how particular situations affect teachers' inner aspects and, consequently, how teachers perceive student-centred learning. In this descriptive qualitative study, we explored situations that encouraged or discouraged teachers to embrace student-centred beliefs, identities and missions. We held three focus-group discussions with 18 teachers from two Indonesian medical schools, performing a thematic analysis of the data thus obtained. We found that certain situations made teachers reflect on their inner aspects, which either favourably or adversely affected their acceptance of a student-centred learning approach. Teachers' outer aspects (i.e. their prior problem-based teaching and learning experiences, learning situations from their own training as well as clinical duties) strongly interacted with their inner aspects, thereby shaping their teaching perspectives. Understanding how specific situations can influence teachers' inner aspects might help institutions to design faculty development programmes that address teachers' specific educational needs.

From field of dreams to back to the future? Exploring barriers to participating in continuing professional development (CPD) programs

BACKGROUND

In 2009, Yvonne Steinert et al., at McGill University, published a study exploring barriers to faculty development (FD) participation among urban faculty. Over a decade later, we set out to replicate and expand on that study to learn what has changed in continued professional development (CPD) and what the current barriers are to participation in CPD for specialists and family physicians in rural and urban locations.

METHODS

Informed by a collaborative inquiry research framework, we invited faculty across rural and urban Saskatchewan to focus groups and interview sessions. The results were analyzed for themes.

RESULTS

Thirty-four faculty members from both rural and urban areas participated in this study. Of these, 50% were female, 74% practiced in urban areas, and 56% had over 20 years of experience. Frequently cited reasons for nonparticipation included time constraints, organizational and logistical challenges, poor resonance with material and presenters, and lack of recognition for teaching provided. Racism contributed to feelings of disconnectedness among physician faculty members.

CONCLUSION

Even after more than a decade, our research uncovered consistent reasons for nonparticipation in locally organized CPD events. New findings highlighted feelings of disconnectedness, notably stemming from racism and workplace discrimination. However, with recent societal developments brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic, can we ride these major waves of change to a new future of engagement? The pandemic led to a shift to virtual and hybrid professional development programs, presenting both benefits and challenges. Additionally, the peri-COVID anti-racism movement may positively address previously unidentified reasons for nonattendance. Harnessing these major changes could lead to a new future of engagement for continued professional development.

A systematic review of faculty development programs based on the Harden teacher's role framework model

BACKGROUND

Despite the changing roles of faculty in the health professions over the past two decades, none of the reviews has been paid enough attention to the impact of the faculty development programs on these roles. The objective of this review is to synthesize the existing evidence that addresses the questions: "What are the types and outcomes of faculty development programs based on the Harden teachers' role framework and which of the areas described by Harden and Crosby are the authors referring to?"

METHODS

This review was conducted according to the guidance for Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) framework. In 2020, a literature search was conducted in MEDLINE/PubMed, Scopus, ERIC, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, Magiran and SID databases. The review included 119 studies (between 1990 and 2020) that met the review criteria. Data were extracted using a modified coding sheet. We used the modified Kirkpatrick model to assess the educational outcomes of faculty development programs.

RESULTS

The majority of faculty development programs were workshops (33.61%) with various durations. Most programs focused on the domain of information provider and coach (76.47%), followed by the facilitator of learning and mentor (53.78%) and assessor and diagnostician (37.81%). Only five faculty development programs focused on the domain of role model. The majority (83.19%) of outcomes reported were at level 2B, level 1 (73.95%) and level 2A (71.42%). Gains in knowledge and skills related to teaching methods and student assessment were frequently noted. Behavior changes included enhanced teaching performance, development of new educational curricula and programs, improved feedback and evaluation processes, new leadership positions, increased academic output and career development. The impact on the organizational practice continued to be underexplored.

CONCLUSION

Based on the review findings, broadening the scope of faculty development programs beyond the traditional roles of the faculty members by utilizing a competency-based framework for developing a comprehensive faculty development program is recommended. Attention to individualized form of faculty development programs and incorporating more informal approaches into the design and delivery of faculty development programs is also needed.

The effect of the Educational Scholar Program as a longitudinal faculty development program on the capability of educators as scholars

INTRODUCTION

The Educational Scholar Program (ESP) is designed and implemented as a longitudinal and institution-based faculty development program. The present study aimed to assess the effect of the ESP on educators' capabilities to undertake SoTL activities associated with their scholar role.

METHODS

This study was conducted from 2017 to 2022. The participants (n = 64) were educators in six schools of Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences. The ESP was a faculty development program that consisted of training and project-based stages. The educators experienced small-group learning, self-directed learning, and reflective assignments in the training stage. In the second stage, the educators completed a SoTL (Scholarship of Teaching and Learning) project. Learner-related outcomes based on Kirkpatrick model was assessed. The reaction of educators (satisfaction, active participation in the ESP, and the perception of mentoring sessions) was assessed by three questionnaires (Reaction level). The educators' learning was evaluated by modified essay questions and their project reports (Learning and Behavior levels). Outputs of the ESP including journal publications, abstracts presented at meetings or congresses, grant funding, awards in educational festivals, promotions, projects with ongoing implementation following the ESP, and conducting further SoTL projects after ESP were assessed quantitatively over two years after participating in the ESP (Results level). Data were summarized by descriptive statistics (mean, percentage, SD, 95% Confidence Interval (CI)). Cut-off scores of the instruments was calculated with a standard setting method which introduced by Cohen-Schotanus and Van DerVleuten. Data analyzed by One-sample t-test.

RESULTS

Sixty-four of 72 (89%) educators completed the ESP. The mean (CI) satisfaction score of educators was 42 (CI: 26.92-58.28), the active participation was 92 (CI: 80.24-103.76). The scores of the mentoring assessment from the perspective of the educators were reported at 90 (CI: 78.24- 101.76). The mean (95%CI) learning scores in the essay examination were 88 (CI: 70.36- 105.64), and project assessment were 90 (CI: 78.24- 101.76). The results showed the educators' scores in reaction and learning significantly higher than the cut-off scores. (P < 0.05). Most projects were conducted in curriculum development and assessment/evaluation domains. The number of projects with ongoing implementation over the two years following the ESP and the acquisition of grants was higher than other outputs in the results level.

CONCLUSION

The ESP, as an institute-based longitudinal program, enhanced the learner-related outcomes (in four levels of reaction, learning, behavior, and results). The creation of practical learning and supportive mechanisms influenced on the results. The outcomes of ESP indicated that the educators prepared to conduct SoTL activities in their educational community.

Developing student-centred perspectives in PBL: how teacher profiles reveal educational needs for faculty development programmes

BACKGROUND

In Asian higher education, PBL is not always successful, as few teachers have embraced a student-centred perspective. To cultivate such essential perspectives, faculty development programmes should address teachers' specific educational needs, which sadly is currently not sufficiently the case. This study aimed to identify teacher profiles that would reveal these specific educational needs of teachers and to investigate the relationship between these profiles and the amount of PBL training previously received.

METHODS

To identify the said profiles, we performed latent profile analysis on a stratified random sample of 543 teachers based on a survey of teaching perspectives on the six aspects of Korthagen's onion model of reflection (environment, behaviour, competencies, beliefs, identity and mission). Additionally, we employed Chi-square and Mann-Whitney tests to investigate the aforementioned relationship.

RESULTS

We identified six teacher profiles that resemble the diffusion of innovations theory's classification of innovation adopters: Innovators, Early adopters, Early majority 1, Early majority 2, Late majority and Laggards. The Chi-square test demonstrated that the amount of PBL training received did not differ significantly across profiles, although teachers with a more innovative profile had undergone slightly more PBL training. The Mann-Whitney test furthermore revealed for three profiles that more PBL training was associated with a higher overall score for student-centredness. When aspects were considered separately, however, this was not the case.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings confirmed that current faculty development programmes are not sufficiently tailored to teachers' needs. We therefore propose that faculty development programmes be redesigned to address teachers' specific educational needs as reflected in the profiles based on the 6 aspects of the onion model. We expect such a tailored approach to more effectively promote the development of student-centred perspectives.

Common content, delivery modes and outcome measures for faculty development programs in nursing and midwifery: A scoping review

BACKGROUND

Globally, there is a call for urgent investment in nursing and midwifery education as high-quality education leads to quality care provision. This call for investment includes a 'focus on faculty', that is, development of those who teach. However, challenges in the preparation and development of faculty have been identified and include lack of recognition of ongoing development, limited pathways for career progression, inadequate provision of, or access to, faculty development opportunities and a lack of research evaluating sustained impact of programs.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this review was to identify, synthesise and report on common program content, modes of delivery and evaluation processes of faculty development programs in nursing and/or midwifery.

METHODS

A scoping review was conducted following Joanna Briggs Institute guidance. A comprehensive search strategy was developed and conducted in six health and/or education focussed databases. Peer-reviewed articles, published in English in the last decade and with a primary focus on nursing and/or midwifery faculty were included in the review. References lists of included studies were searched and a search to identify relevant grey literature was conducted. Using systematic review software, titles and abstracts were reviewed by two reviewers with a third reviewer used to resolve discrepancies. Data were extracted and recorded, key characteristics were mapped and content analysis used to synthesise, analyse and report findings.

RESULTS

Seventeen articles were included in the review and identified common content provided in nursing and midwifery faculty development programs. The predominant content was approaches for learning and teaching. Other common content was leadership, research and assessment practices. Modes for program delivery were most often a blend of online and face-to-face. Program evaluation was reliant on participants' self-reported measures of satisfaction and confidence and did not examine impact over time.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Commonalities in program content primarily focussed on learning and teaching, but also included content linked to expected professional nursing and midwifery educator competencies such as leadership and research. However, a lack of content on the key faculty activity of curriculum design was noted and should be addressed in future program development. In addition, there was a lack of evaluation on the impact of different modes of delivery. Furthermore, an over-reliance on self-reported evaluation measures and a lack of longitudinal evaluation of impact on education practice and on student experience and outcomes. Future research should include evaluation of modes of delivery and impact on faculty practice over a sustained period.

Development and Evaluation of a Faculty-Based Accredited Continuing Professional Development Route for Teaching and Learning

This article characterizes and evaluates the development of an accredited, in-house, faculty-based teaching recognition scheme aimed at supporting clinicians and academics to achieve Advance HE Fellowship recognition. The scheme takes 6 to 24 months to complete and forms part of an institution-wide scheme. The evaluation covered 44 months, collecting data on participation rates across the school and 21 semi-structured interviews across 16 staff participants. We describe the outcomes measured alongside key perceived benefits and challenges to support the implementation of similar schemes elsewhere. Across 130 academic staff, there was 61% engagement. In interviews, 11 participants characterized benefits in terms of changes to their teaching, such as adopting new strategies for differing class sizes, and highlighted the benefit of accessible and context-specific development opportunities designed specifically for STEMM (science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and medicine) practitioners and clinicians. Motivations for participating were mainly intrinsic (69%), with international professional recognition also featured (61%, n = 10). Of the 23 participants who withdrew, the largest subgroup (39%) withdrew because they had left the institution, and 35% withdrew because of a lack of time, which encompassed a range of issues. We outline recommendations for implementing similar schemes including protected time, accessible development opportunities, and support for mentors.

Facilitating Development of Problem-Solving Skills in Veterinary Learners with Clinical Examples

Simple Summary

This review seeks to open discussion on the teaching of problem-solving skills in veterinary learners. Before a veterinary learn-er can solve a problem, they need to be able to recognize the problem. Then, information is gathered and economically viable solutions determined. To make problem-solving easier, we suggest a process with 5 elements: (1) define the problem list; (2) create an associated timeline; (3) describe the (anatomical) system involved or the pathophysiological principle applicable to the case; (4) propose management for the case; and (5) identify unique features of the case. In order to put the above into context, we end the review with an example case scenario showing the approach of teaching of problem-solving.

Abstract

This paper seeks to open discussion on the teaching of problem-solving skills in veterinary learners. We start by defining the term problem before discussing what constitutes problem-solving. For veterinary medical learners, problem-solving techniques are similar to those of decision-making and are integral to clinical reasoning. Problem-solving requires the veterinary learner to organize information logically to allow application of prior or new knowledge in arriving at a solution. The decision-making must encompass choices that provide the most beneficial and economical approach. In a modification of an existing protocol, we suggest the inclusion of the 5 elements: (1) define the problem list; (2) create an associated timeline; (3) describe the (anatomical) system involved or the pathophysiological principle applicable to the case; (4) propose management for the case; and (5) identify unique features of the case. During problem-solving activities, the instructor should take the role of facilitator rather than teacher. Skills utilized in the facilitation of problem-solving by learners include coaching, differential reinforcement, effective feedback, modelling and ‘think out loud’. Effective feedback must inform learners of their progress and performance, as this is fundamental to continued learning and motivation to succeed. In order to put the above into context, we end with an example case scenario showing how we would approach the teaching of problem-solving to veterinary learners.

Effective Veterinary Clinical Teaching in a Variety of Teaching Settings

This review explores different modalities for clinical teaching of veterinary learners globally. Effective clinical teaching aims to prepare graduates for a successful career in clinical practice. Unfortunately, there is scant literature concerning clinical teaching in veterinary medicine. Our intent for this review is to stimulate and/or facilitate discussion and/or research in this important area. We discuss the different forms that veterinary clinical teaching can take, depending on their setting, which can be university-based clinical activities, work-based in commercial clinical practices, or in a traditional academic setting with little to no real-time exposure to clients and patients. We suggest that each of these modalities has a place in clinical teaching of veterinary learners at any point in the curriculum but that a mix of these approaches will likely provide an improved experience for the learner. Further, we discuss strategies to improve clinical teaching in these different settings. Potential strategies related to the teaching skills of clinical instructors could include training in delivery of clinical teaching in a variety of learning settings, and instructors’ official recognition, including opportunities for career progression. Potential strategies to improve clinical teaching in different teaching settings would vary with the learning settings. For example, in traditional academic settings, case-based learning with incorporation of simulation models is one proposed strategy. The involvement of learners in ‘teach-others’ is a strategy for both traditional academic and clinical settings. Finally, clearly addressing Day One competencies is required in any clinical teaching setting.

Motivation and Experience Matters: What Veterinary Mentors Think About Learning Communication Skills: A Qualitative Study

Communication skills are a core competence in veterinary medicine. These skills play a pivotal role in professional success in the animal health professions. Over the last few decades, there has been an increased focus on communication skills in veterinary curricula. Conversely, we know less about the knowledge and motivation behind the communication skills of those veterinarians in different work domains who are acting as mentors outside the university. In 2016, semi-structured interviews (n = 16) were conducted with German practitioners in workplaces ranging from companion to farm animal practice, and throughout the veterinary industry, veterinary research, and government service. We combined two qualitative methods: a thematic analysis approach and the generation of types to identify characteristics associated with the acquisition of communication skills. In the current study, three main themes were developed: "Motivation," "Experiences with the acquisition of communication skills," and "Communication skills training during formal education." Within the identified themes, we recognized three types of communicators: "self-experienced," "extrinsic-experienced," and "unexperienced." We found that acquisition of communication skills was closely linked to motivation; therefore, motivation must be considered when developing communication skills curricula for learners and educators. By extrapolating the findings of this explorative study, we determined that intrinsically motivated mentors from the field should be a main source of veterinary education to promote further development in communication training. This qualitative study also determined that most non-university veterinary mentors had only a basic knowledge of teaching and learning communication skills, leading us to recommend formal training. Interchange between practicing veterinarians and veterinary educators and curriculum coordinators can foster relevant curricular modifications.

Using the Five-Microskills Method in Veterinary Medicine Clinical Teaching

Effective clinical teaching is essential for the development of veterinary learners. Teaching clinical reasoning is a challenge for veterinary instructors as many lack adequate training in clinical teaching. In this paper, we propose the use of the five-microskills (FMS; also known as the one-minute preceptor) model of clinical teaching as a tool that can be used not only in teaching during clinical encounters but also during traditional teaching sessions (e.g., practicals). The FMS model assists the instructor in estimating the level of knowledge and development of the learner and allows for providing feedback. The FMS model is applicable in the busy clinical or teaching schedule of the instructor and requires training only of the instructor, not the learner. We provide two examples of the use of the FMS model, one of a clinical encounter and the other a biochemistry practical. From the examples, readers should be able to extract the basis of the model and start using it in their day-to-day practice. For proper use of the model, 1-4 h of training is usually recommended.

Creating a Pedagogical Development Program for Veterinary Clinical Teachers: A Discipline-Specific, Context-Relevant, Bottom-Up Initiative

At veterinary university hospitals, clinical teachers have two responsibilities: treating patients and teaching students. At the University of Copenhagen, many teachers are involved in the clinical teaching and assessment of veterinary students, but only some of these teachers-the academic faculty-have access to pedagogical training. We conceived an idea to develop a pedagogical program aimed specifically at clinical teachers. However, instead of implementing an existing program developed elsewhere, we decided to create a discipline-specific, context-relevant program. The creational process applied the principles of action learning consulting (ALC), which dictate that a pedagogical consultant and key involved employees cooperate closely in a dynamic, creational process. A program was developed with content focused on addressing the perceived needs expressed by the clinical teachers. The program consisted of three 2.5-hour seminars, each covering one of the main themes: teaching situations in clinical settings, pedagogical psychology in clinical teaching, and assessment and feedback. The seminars were conducted in the afternoon approximately 2 months apart and were facilitated by the two authors with a veterinary background (CBM, RL). Ten to 20 clinical teachers participated in each seminar, and feedback from participants was positive overall, acknowledging the creation of a forum for critical discussions on clinical teaching and learning and greater insight into pedagogical themes. As a result of the application of the ALC principle, the program is highly context relevant and has gained optimal anchorage within the organization; the seminars will therefore be repeated and allowed to continuously evolve.

Veterinary Educator Teaching and Scholarship (VETS): A Case Study of a Multi-Institutional Faculty Development Program to Advance Teaching and Learning

Content expertise in basic science and clinical disciplines does not assure proficiency in teaching. Faculty development to improve teaching and learning is essential for the advancement of veterinary education. The Consortium of West Region Colleges of Veterinary Medicine established the Regional Teaching Academy (RTA) with the focus of "Making Teaching Matter." The objective of the RTA's first effort, the Faculty Development Initiative (FDI), was to develop a multi-institutional faculty development program for veterinary educators to learn about and integrate effective teaching methods. In 2016, the Veterinary Educator Teaching and Scholarship (VETS) program was piloted at Oregon State University's College of Veterinary Medicine. This article uses a case study approach to program evaluation of the VETS program. We describe the VETS program, participants' perceptions, participants' teaching method integration, and lessons learned. A modified Kirkpatrick Model (MKM) was used to categorize program outcomes and impact. Quantitative data are presented as descriptive statistics, and qualitative data are presented as the themes that emerged from participant survey comments and post-program focus groups. Results indicated outcomes and impacts that included participants' perceptions of the program, changes in participant attitude toward teaching and learning, an increase in the knowledge level of participants, self-reported changes in participant behaviors, and changes in practices and structure at the college level. Lessons learned indicate that the following are essential for program success: (1) providing institutional and financial support; (2) creating a community of practice (COP) of faculty development facilitators, and (3) developing a program that addresses the needs of faculty and member institutions.

Using outcome harvesting: Assessing the efficacy of CBME implementation

RATIONALE

In 2015, Queen's University embarked on an institution-wide transition to a competency-based medical education (CBME) curriculum for all 29 postgraduate medical education programmes. On 1 July 2017, this goal was accomplished. With this mass transition came the requirement to assess the efficacy of implementation through a programme evaluation process, which included the use of outcome harvesting (Wilson-Grau). Outcome harvesting identified the intended and unintended outcomes of CBME implementation, which helped us understand how the intervention was achieved and how the relationship between behaviours and stakeholders contributed to the successful transition.

METHODS

A systematic approach to document analysis was used to categorize the eight identified areas of implementation: governance, scholarship, faculty development, resident leadership, curriculum, assessment, communications, and technology. Documents (N = 443) were organized per project area and then coded thematically. Documents were then categorized for attribution to outcomes using the outcome harvesting approach. Outcomes were validated via interrater reliability and substantiated by stakeholders to verify accuracy of formulation and plausibility of its influence on the outcome.

RESULTS

The harvest produced 38 outcomes, either intended or unintended, that can be attributed to CBME implementation at Queen's University.

CONCLUSION

Using outcome harvesting to assess the efficacy of CBME implementation produced a robust set of themes and resultant outcomes that can be categorized as requirements for success of implementation of any curricular innovation. Emergent themes included collaboration, community of practice, and stakeholder commitment. More unique observations noted through the harvest process included new policy development, creation of learner ownership, and an increase in the output of scholarly activity involving CBME.

Sustaining a Collegewide Teaching Academy as a Community: 10 Years of Experience With the Master Teacher Program at the University of Tennessee College of Veterinary Medicine

On the basis of strategic initiatives and an evolving focus on educational program enhancement, faculty and staff members designed a structured program to provide leadership and resources for improving instruction and disseminating educational scholarship in a veterinary college. The University of Tennessee College of Veterinary Medicine Master Teacher Program was conceptualized in the teaching academy model as a forum for professional development and dialogue. A small leadership team worked with other faculty to develop the program proposal, including its mission, vision, values, and initial goals. Programming includes monthly meetings to discuss a range of policy, theoretical, and practical topics, as well as periodic workshops focused on current strategic initiatives or hot topics. Ten years later, the program continues to successfully connect educators and have an impact on the college and profession. Attendance has grown steadily; feedback has been positive. Participants rate the program's overall value highly, particularly its impact on their teaching, the opportunity to stay current in educational topics, and the opportunity to learn from colleagues. Discussions within the program have provided valuable input for college policy and practices. Keys to sustained success have included a historical culture emphasizing the teaching mission, alignment with college goals, consistency in leadership and programming, periodic revisions and rebranding, and attention to new faculty and staff needs. This article describes the development, growth, and perceived impact of the program and emphasizes lessons learned and actions taken to sustain its success without additional personnel and at minimal cost.

Supervision: 'a random bag of arrangements'? Perspectives from psychiatrists on how to improve clinical teaching

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to explore psychiatrists' perspectives on how clinical teaching and supervision can be improved in postgraduate psychiatric training.

METHOD

All New Zealand members of the Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists (fellows: n=367; affiliates: n=167) were invited to participate in an online survey that collected responses to two open-ended questions. The responses were then analysed qualitatively.

RESULTS

A total of 27% psychiatrists responded. Two major themes emerged: supervisor competencies and the workplace educational environment, with subthemes of supervisor training, feedback and culture change.

CONCLUSIONS

Suggestions to improve clinical teaching and supervision included defining supervisor teaching competencies, instituting evidence-based faculty development, a feedback structure and strengthening leadership support for workplace-based education.

Discipline-Specific Compared to Generic Training of Teachers in Higher Education

A recurrent theme arising in the higher education sector is the suitability and effectiveness of generic versus discipline-specific training of university teachers, who are often recruited based on their disciplinary specialties to become teachers in higher education. We compared two groups of participants who had undergone training using a generic post-graduate certificate in higher education (PGCertGeneric) versus a discipline-specific course in veterinary education (PGCertVetEd). The study was conducted using a survey that allowed comparison of participants who completed PGCertGeneric (n=21) with PGCertVetEd (n=22). Results indicated that participants from both PGCertGeneric and PGCertVetEd considered teaching to be satisfying and important to their careers, valued the teaching observation component of the course, and identified similar training needs. However, the participants of the PGCertVetEd felt that the course made them better teachers, valued the relevance of the components taught, understood course design better, were encouraged to do further courses/reading in teaching and learning, changed their teaching as a result of the course, and were less stressed about teaching as compared to the PGCertGeneric participants (p<.05). It is likely that the PGCertVetEd, which was designed and developed by veterinarians with a wider understanding of the veterinary sector, helped the participants perceive the training course as suited to their needs.

Why Veterinary Medical Educators Should Embrace Cumulative Final Exams

The topic of cumulative final examinations often elicits polarizing opinions from veterinary medical educators. While some faculty prefer cumulative finals, there are many who perceive these types of examinations as problematic. Specifically, faculty often cite cumulative examinations are more likely to cause students' greater stress, which may in turn result in negative student evaluations of teaching. Cumulative finals also restrict the number of items one may present to students on most recent material. While these cited disadvantages may have some merit, the advantages of cumulative examinations far exceed the disadvantages. The purpose of this article is to discuss the advantages of cumulative examinations with respect to learning evidence, grade/score validity, fairness issues, and implications for academic policy.

Preparing anesthesiology faculty for competency-based medical education

PURPOSE

Competency-based medical education (CBME) is quickly becoming the dominant organizing principle for medical residency programs. As CBME requires changes in the way medical education is delivered, faculty will need to acquire new skills in teaching and assessment in order to navigate the transition. In this paper, we examine the evidence supporting best practices in faculty development, propose strategies for faculty development for CBME-based residency programs, and discuss the results of faculty development initiatives at the pioneering anesthesia CBME residency program at the University of Ottawa.

SOURCE

Review of the current literature and information from the University of Ottawa anesthesia residency program.

PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Faculty development is critical to the success of CBME programs. Attention must be paid to the competence of faculty to teach and assess all of the CanMEDS roles. At the University of Ottawa, some faculty development initiatives were very successful, while others were hindered by factors both internal and external to the residency program. Many faculty development activities had low attendance rates.

CONCLUSIONS

Faculty development must be considered in the rollout of any new educational initiative. Experts suggest that faculty development for CBME should incorporate educational activities using multiple teaching and delivery methods, and should be offered longitudinally through the planning, development, and implementation phases of curriculum change. Additionally, these educational activities must continue until all faculty have demonstrated an acceptable level of competence. Faculty buy-in is paramount to the successful delivery of any faculty development program that is not mandatory in nature.

Developing educators for continuing professional development

Continuing professional development (CPD) is part of the medical education continuum, has been shown to produce improved physician practice and good patient outcomes, and is increasingly required for revalidation of medical licensure. CPD can be considered a discipline in its own right but is the least formally organized stage in medical education. CPD educators play a central role, but there has been remarkably little published work specifically describing CPD educators. This narrative review, using ophthalmology as exemplar medical specialty, describes trends affecting CPD educators and their sources, attributes, and development needs, mainly extrapolated from information regarding other medical educators in the medical education continuum spectrum. Future research needs are discussed.

Supporting Veterinary Preceptors in a Distributed Model of Education: A Faculty Development Needs Assessment

Effective faculty development for veterinary preceptors requires knowledge about their learning needs and delivery preferences. Veterinary preceptors at community practice locations in Alberta, Canada, were surveyed to determine their confidence in teaching ability and interest in nine faculty development topics. The study included 101 veterinarians (48.5% female). Of these, 43 (42.6%) practiced veterinary medicine in a rural location and 54 (53.5%) worked in mixed-animal or food-animal practice. Participants reported they were more likely to attend an in-person faculty development event than to participate in an online presentation. The likelihood of attending an in-person event differed with the demographics of the respondent. Teaching clinical reasoning, assessing student performance, engaging and motivating students, and providing constructive feedback were topics in which preceptors had great interest and high confidence. Preceptors were least confident in the areas of student learning styles, balancing clinical workload with teaching, and resolving conflict involving the student. Disparities between preceptors' interest and confidence in faculty development topics exist, in that topics with the lowest confidence scores were not rated as those of greatest interest. While the content and format of clinical teaching faculty development events should be informed by the interests of preceptors, consideration of preceptors' confidence in teaching ability may be warranted when developing a faculty development curriculum.

Faculty Development for a New Curriculum: Implementing a Strategy for Veterinary Teachers within the Wider University Context

Faculty development in veterinary education is receiving increasing attention internationally and is considered of particular importance during periods of organizational or curricular change. This report outlines a faculty development strategy developed since October 2012 at the University of Bristol Veterinary School, in parallel with the development and implementation of a new curriculum. The aim of the strategy is to deliver accessible, contextual faculty development workshops for clinical and non-clinical staff involved in veterinary student training, thereby equipping staff with the skills and support to deliver high-quality teaching in a modern curriculum. In October 2014, these workshops became embedded within the new University of Bristol Continuing Professional Development scheme, Cultivating Research and Teaching Excellence. This scheme ensures that staff have a clear and structured route to achieving formal recognition of their teaching practice as well as access to a wide range of resources to further their overall professional development. The key challenges and constraints are discussed.

Challenges and Issues in the Evaluation of Teaching Quality: How Does it Affect Teachers' Professional Practice? A UK Perspective

Evaluation of the quality of higher education is undertaken for the purposes of ensuring accountability, accreditation, and improvement, all of which are highly relevant to veterinary teaching institutions in the current economic climate. If evaluation is to drive change, it needs to be able to influence teaching practice. This article reviews the literature relating to evaluation of teaching quality in higher education with a particular focus on teachers' professional practice. Student evaluation and peer observation of teaching are discussed as examples of widely used evaluation processes. These approaches clearly have the potential to influence teachers' practice. Institutions should strive to ensure the development of a supportive culture that prioritizes teaching quality while being aware of any potential consequences related to cost, faculty time, or negative emotional responses that might result from the use of different evaluation methods.

Educational technologies in problem-based learning in health sciences education: a systematic review

Background

As a modern pedagogical philosophy, problem-based learning (PBL) is increasingly being recognized as a major research area in student learning and pedagogical innovation in health sciences education. A new area of research interest has been the role of emerging educational technologies in PBL. Although this field is growing, no systematic reviews of studies of the usage and effects of educational technologies in PBL in health sciences education have been conducted to date.

Objective

The aim of this paper is to review new and emerging educational technologies in problem-based curricula, with a specific focus on 3 cognate clinical disciplines: medicine, dentistry, and speech and hearing sciences. Analysis of the studies reviewed focused on the effects of educational technologies in PBL contexts while addressing the particular issue of scaffolding of student learning.

Methods

A comprehensive computerized database search of full-text articles published in English from 1996 to 2014 was carried out using 3 databases: ProQuest, Scopus, and EBSCOhost. Eligibility criteria for selection of studies for review were also determined in light of the population, intervention, comparison, and outcomes (PICO) guidelines. The population was limited to postsecondary education, specifically in dentistry, medicine, and speech and hearing sciences, in which PBL was the key educational pedagogy and curriculum design. Three types of educational technologies were identified as interventions used to support student inquiry: learning software and digital learning objects; interactive whiteboards (IWBs) and plasma screens; and learning management systems (LMSs).

Results

Of 470 studies, 28 were selected for analysis. Most studies examined the effects of learning software and digital learning objects (n=20) with integration of IWB (n=5) and LMS (n=3) for PBL receiving relatively less attention. The educational technologies examined in these studies were seen as potentially fit for problem-based health sciences education. Positive outcomes for student learning included providing rich, authentic problems and/or case contexts for learning; supporting student development of medical expertise through the accessing and structuring of expert knowledge and skills; making disciplinary thinking and strategies explicit; providing a platform to elicit articulation, collaboration, and reflection; and reducing perceived cognitive load. Limitations included cumbersome scenarios, infrastructure requirements, and the need for staff and student support in light of the technological demands of new affordances.

Conclusions

This literature review demonstrates the generally positive effect of educational technologies in PBL. Further research into the various applications of educational technology in PBL curricula is needed to fully realize its potential to enhance problem-based approaches in health sciences education.

Strategies for sustaining quality in PBL facilitation for large student cohorts

Problem-based learning (PBL) has been used to scaffold and support student learning in many Australian medical programs, with the role of the facilitator in the process considered crucial to the overall educational experience of students. With the increasing size of student cohorts and in an environment of financial constraint, it is important to develop quality control procedures to maintain an effective and efficient PBL program and a stable tutor workforce. This paper reports on organisational practices and faculty development opportunities used to sustain facilitation quality in a large cohort PBL program. Seven strategies are proposed, built around a sound professional development program, and a suite of tactics for recruitment of, and ongoing support for, PBL tutors.

Faculty development in veterinary education: are we doing enough (or publishing enough about it), and do we value it?

In this discussion article, I aim to promote international discourse about faculty development in veterinary education, to highlight both the paucity of literature available in this field and the variation in terminology used in publications, to draw from existing evidence in medical education literature, and to identify what we know already and where we are now and where we should be in the next 10 years.

Workplace learning in veterinary education: a sociocultural perspective

Veterinary practice is a broad sphere of professional activity encompassing clinical activity and other vocational opportunities conducted in rapidly changing contemporary social conditions. Workplace learning is an important but resource-intensive component of educating students for practice. This conceptual article argues that literature on workplace learning in the veterinary context is dominated by descriptive accounts and that there is a dearth of theoretically informed research on this topic. Framing veterinary practice as a social, relational, and discursive practice supports the use of workplace learning theories developed from a sociocultural perspective. Situated learning theory, with its associated concepts of communities of practice and legitimate peripheral participation, and workplace learning theory focused on workplace affordances and learner agency are discussed. Two composite examples of student feedback from veterinary clinical learning illustrate the concepts, drawing out such themes as the roles of teachers and learners and the assessment of integrated practice. The theoretical perspective described in this article can be used to inform development of models of workplace learning in veterinary clinical settings; relevant examples from medical education are presented.

Do GP trainers use feedback in drawing up their Personal Development Plans (PDPs)? Results from a quantitative study

BACKGROUND

General practice (GP) trainers play a key role GP trainees' education. To stimulate development of trainer competencies a Personal Development Plan (PDP) can be helpful, especially when feedback is incorporated.

AIMS

To investigate to what extent GP trainers use feedback in PDPs.

METHODS

GP trainers were provided with three feedback sources: trainees' rating scores, trainees' narrative comments, and self-assessment scores. Trainers were instructed to use these while drawing up PDP goals. With quantitative analyses the extent to feedback sources were used was determined.

RESULTS

Of the trainers 93% submitted a PDP. More than 75% of goals were based on provided feedback. Multiple sources addressing the same issue increased feedback use. If two sources pointed in the same direction, feedback was used more often if one of them concerned "narrative comments". Ratings were lowest for GP-related Expertise and Teaching Skills. Most goals defined concerned these domains. Fewer goals regarded Personal Functioning. Proportion of feedback used concerning Personal functioning was lowest.

CONCLUSIONS

GP trainers use most feedback and address issues most commented upon. Narrative comments deserve a profound place when eliciting feedback. Research into the quality with which feedback is used in PDP goals should complement these results.

What is so difficult about managing clinical reasoning difficulties?

CONTEXT

Clinical reasoning is the cornerstone of medical competence. Difficulties in this area are often identified late in clinical training. Studies point to challenges faced by clinical educators in their dual roles as clinicians and educators. Little is known about the common, yet complex, issue of how they manage clinical reasoning difficulties. We therefore sought to: (i) describe the current state of affairs in various clinical teaching settings, and (ii) explore the factors that determine the behaviour of clinical educators in this respect.

METHODS

Four focus groups were conducted with 26 clinical educators in general practice, internal medicine and emergency medicine in Belgium and Switzerland. Two researchers analysed the transcripts of the focus group discussions using Fishbein's integrative model of behaviour prediction in a theory-driven, immersion-crystallisation process. Experienced faculty members validated the findings.

RESULTS

Across diverse settings, the process of identifying and remediating clinical reasoning difficulties was unstructured. Consistent with Fishbein's model, clinical educators' underlying beliefs determined their behaviour. They believed in the apprenticeship model of learning in the clinical environment, in which their educational role was limited to role-modelling and in which residents were responsible for assimilating skills. They were sceptical about the potential impact of remediation. A few more knowledgeable supervisors had a stronger sense of their educational role, but did not implement systematic procedures to manage clinical reasoning difficulties. Environmental constraints were symptomatic of a collective paradigm of residency as an apprenticeship, in which the focus is on clinical duties, rather than as an educational programme.

CONCLUSIONS

In order to improve the current state of affairs in the management of clinical reasoning difficulties, a collective paradigm shift is required to alter the perception of residency as an apprenticeship to one of residency as a structured educational programme. Faculty development programmes should be designed in an integrated way so that they not only develop clinical educators' skills, but also modify their beliefs.

Decoding the learning environment of medical education: a hidden curriculum perspective for faculty development

Medical student literature has broadly established the importance of differentiating between formal-explicit and hidden-tacit dimensions of the physician education process. The hidden curriculum refers to cultural mores that are transmitted, but not openly acknowledged, through formal and informal educational endeavors. The authors extend the concept of the hidden curriculum from students to faculty, and in so doing, they frame the acquisition by faculty of knowledge, skills, and values as a more global process of identity formation. This process includes a subset of formal, formative activities labeled "faculty development programs" that target specific faculty skills such as teaching effectiveness or leadership; however, it also includes informal, tacit messages that faculty absorb. As faculty members are socialized into faculty life, they often encounter conflicting messages about their role. In this article, the authors examine how faculty development programs have functioned as a source of conflict, and they ask how these programs might be retooled to assist faculty in understanding the tacit institutional culture shaping effective socialization and in managing the inconsistencies that so often dominate faculty life.

Investing in the future: building an academic hospitalist faculty development program

BACKGROUND

Academic hospital medicine (AHM) groups continue to grow rapidly, driven largely by clinical demands. While new hospitalist faculty usually have strong backgrounds in clinical medicine, they often lack the tools needed to achieve excellence in the other aspects of a faculty career, including teaching, research, quality improvement, and leadership skills.

OBJECTIVE

To develop and implement a Faculty Development (FD) Program that improves the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and scholarly output of first-year faculty.

INTERVENTION

We created a vision and framework for FD that targeted our new faculty but also engaged our entire Division of Hospital Medicine. New faculty participated in a dedicated coaching relationship with a more senior faculty member, a core curriculum, a teaching course, and activities to meet a set of stated scholarly expectations. All faculty participated in newly established divisional Grand Rounds, a lunch seminar series, and venues to share scholarship and works in progress.

RESULTS

Our FD programmatic offerings were rated highly overall on a scale of 1 to 5 (5 highest): Core Seminars 4.83 ± 0.41, Coaching Program 4.5 ± 0.84, Teaching Course 4.5 ± 0.55, Grand Rounds 4.83 ± 0.41, and Lunch Seminars 4.5 ± 0.84. Compared to faculty hired in the 2 years prior to our FD program implementation, new faculty reported greater degrees of work satisfaction, increased comfort with their skills in a variety of areas, and improved academic output.

CONCLUSION

Building FD programs can be effective to foster the development and satisfaction of new faculty while also creating a shared commitment towards an academic mission.

Peer group reflection helps clinical teachers to critically reflect on their teaching

BACKGROUND

Student evaluations can help clinical teachers to reflect on their teaching skills and find ways to improve their teaching. Studies have shown that the mere presentation of student evaluations is not a sufficient incentive for teachers to critically reflect on their teaching.

AIM

We evaluated and compared the effectiveness of two feedback facilitation strategies that were identical except for a peer reflection meeting.

METHOD

In this study, 54 clinical teachers were randomly assigned to two feedback strategies. In one strategy, a peer reflection was added as an additional step. All teachers completed a questionnaire evaluating the strategy that they had experienced. We analysed the reflection reports and the evaluation questionnaire.

RESULTS

Both strategies stimulated teachers to reflect on feedback and formulate alternative actions for their teaching practice. The teachers who had participated in the peer reflection meeting showed deeper critical reflection and more concrete plans to change their teaching. All feedback strategies were considered effective by the majority of the teachers.

CONCLUSIONS

Strategies with student feedback and self-assessment stimulated reflection on teaching and helped clinical teachers to formulate plans for improvement. A peer reflection meeting seemed to enhance reflection quality. Further research should establish whether it can have lasting effects on teaching quality.

Factors that influence the decision to pursue an internship: the importance of mentoring

The purpose of the present study was (1) to determine if students from one veterinary school who participated in a mentoring/employment program with clinical faculty were more likely to pursue internship training than their peers and (2) to determine factors via survey that were influential to veterinary interns in making their decision to pursue post-graduate clinical training. Our hypothesis was that a mentoring relationship with clinical faculty was an important influence on the decision to participate in an internship. From 2006 to 2010, graduating students who participated in a mentoring/employment program with a clinical faculty member were 6.3 times more likely than non-participating students to pursue an internship. The majority of the participating students (90%) were initially hired/mentored as first- or second-year veterinary students. In the survey, interns ranked clinical faculty as having a greater influence than basic science faculty, private practice veterinarians, or house officers on their decision to pursue an internship; 82.8% reported that clinical faculty were most responsible for encouraging them to apply for an internship. Employment by their veterinary teaching hospital (41.5%) or directly by clinical faculty (26.2%) was commonly reported. Most interns (37%) decided to pursue an internship during their fourth year of veterinary school, 29.2% decided during their first year, and 15.3% decided in their second year. These results suggest that clinical faculty play a key role in a student's decision to pursue an internship and that it might be valuable to inform students about internships early in the veterinary curriculum.

Preparing faculty for the future: AAVMC members' perceptions of professional development needs

Our purpose in this study was to determine professional development needs of faculty in the Association of American Veterinary Medical Colleges' (AAVMC's) member institutions, including those needs associated with current and emerging issues and leadership development. The survey asked respondents to report their level of job satisfaction and their perceptions of professional development as they related to support and resources, teaching, research, career planning, and administration. Five hundred and sixty-five individuals from 49 member institutions responded to an online professional development needs survey. We found that job satisfaction was associated with a variety of workplace variables correlated with academic rank, with those of higher academic rank expressing greater levels of satisfaction. Respondents with tenure also expressed generally higher levels of satisfaction. Most of the respondents expressed interest in learning more about topics related to teaching (e.g., effective questioning, giving feedback, principles of learning and motivation), research (e.g., research design, writing grants), career planning (e.g., mentoring, time management), and administration (e.g., fostering innovation, enhancing productivity, improving the work environment). Just more than half of the respondents indicated moderate to high interest in an AAVMC multi-phase leadership training program. The study suggests topics for which AAVMC should provide professional development opportunities either at existing meetings or through new programming. The study also suggests directions for individual institutions as they seek to implement professional development activities at the local level.

The importance of faculty development in the transition to competency-based medical education

Medical teachers trained in conventional educational systems need faculty development to prepare them to function effectively in a competency-based medical education (CBME) system. Faculty development can provide knowledge about CBME, training in new teaching techniques in different domains of medical practice, and new strategies for providing the authentic and regular assessment that is an essential aspect of CBME. A systems-wide approach as well as efforts to provide training in CBME to individual teachers in both the undergraduate and postgraduate systems will be important. The wide implementation of CBME will be challenging and slow, and will meet with resistance, but various strategies can be used address these challenges. Faculty development is fundamental to the effectiveness of those strategies.

Adult learning in veterinary education: theory to practice

This paper argues the case for the increased application of adult learning principles to veterinary education. It encapsulates evidence from the United Kingdom, Europe, North America, and Australia to explain why it has taken veterinary schools so long to transform their curricula to best facilitate the development of lifelong learning skills, such as independent and self-directed learning, problem solving, and critical thinking. Despite the variation in training programs in these different regions, the paper identifies common issues-conflicting educational paradigms and the need for faculty development-and ultimately concludes that professional and continuing education should be viewed as a continuous process, supporting the adult learner's cognitive development and facilitated through experiential learning.