Organic versus Conventional Raw Cow Milk as Material for Processing

Milk, as one of the basic raw materials of animal origin, must be of adequate hygienic and physicochemical quality for processing. The aim of the article was to compare the quality of raw milk from three production systems, intensive, traditional (together referred to as conventional), and organic, as material for processing, as well as the quality of products made from it. Particular attention was focused on hygienic quality (somatic cell count and total bacterial count), physical characteristics (acidity), basic nutritional value (content of dry matter, total protein, casein, fat, and lactose), content of health-promoting substances (whey proteins, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals), and technological parameters (rennet clotting time, heat stability, and protein-to-fat ratio). Research assessing the quality of organic milk and dairy products is significantly less extensive (if available at all) than for milk from conventional production (intensive and traditional). The available reports indicate that raw milk from organic farms is more valuable, especially in terms of the content of health-promoting compounds, including vitamins, fatty acids, whey proteins, and minerals. This applies to organic dairy products as well, mainly cheese and yoghurt. This is explained by the fact that organic farming requires that animals are kept in the pasture. However, the hygienic quality of the raw milk, and often the products as well, raises some concerns; for this reason, organic milk producers should be supported in this regard, e.g., through consultancy and training in Good Hygienic Practices. Importantly, milk production in the traditional and organic systems is in line with the concept of the European Green Deal.

Impact of Maternal High Stocking Density during the Dry Period on Dairy Calf Health, Behaviour, and Welfare

Simple Summary

Negative impacts of stressful maternal experience during pregnancy on offspring health and behaviour have been reported in various mammalian species including humans, laboratory animals, and farm animals. This study investigated the effect of limited space allowance for dairy cows during late gestation on the growth and behaviour of their offspring during the pre-weaning period. Our results indicated associations between maternal high stocking density and a higher frequency of social behaviours and increased behavioural reactivity to weaning in offspring. Maternal high stocking density also reduced behavioural reactions of healthy offspring to a painful procedure. However, there was no association between maternal high stocking density and offspring growth or behaviour in the first week of life. To our knowledge, this study is the first to attempt to demonstrate associations between maternal stocking density during late pregnancy and offspring behaviour in dairy cattle.

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate the effect of maternal stocking density during late pregnancy (approximately 60 ± 4 days before calving) on offspring performance during the pre-weaning period. Forty-five dairy calves were born to cows that went through either industry minimum standards (H: n = 24, high stocking density) or more extensive space allowances (L: n = 21, low stocking density) during the dry period. Body weight and average daily gain during the pre-weaning period (day 1–49) were measured. Observations were made of: (i) activity levels (day 2–6); ii) the level of training required to use an automatic feeder, and behavioural reactions to the group environment (d7); (iii) feeding and social behaviour in the group pen (day 7–21); and (iv) responses to weaning (day 40–49) and disbudding (day 28+). Compared to L calves, H calves made more frequent social contacts with pen mates in the group pen (p = 0.003) and decreased their lying time around weaning (p = 0.045). Among the healthy calves, L calves displayed more severe behavioural reactions to the disbudding procedure (p < 0.001), a significant increase in salivary cortisol concentrations (p = 0.013), and more frequent pain-related behaviour (p = 0.036). This study indicated associations between maternal stocking density during late pregnancy and some welfare-relevant offspring outcomes during the pre-weaning period; these effects were found to be modulated by offspring health status.

Prevalence of subclinical mastitis in Finnish dairy cows: changes during recent decades and impact of cow and herd factors

Background

The dairy industry has undergone substantial structural changes as intensive farming has developed during recent decades. Mastitis continues to be the most common production disease of dairy cows. Nationwide surveys of mastitis prevalence are useful in monitoring udder health of dairy herds and to study the impact of structural changes on the dairy industry. This survey on bovine subclinical mastitis was the first based on cow composite milk somatic cell count (SCC) data from the Finnish national health monitoring and milk recording database. A cow with composite milk SCC ≥200,000 cells/ml in at least one of the four test milkings during the year was considered to have subclinical mastitis and a cow with composite milk SCC ≥200,000 cells/ml in three or in all four test milkings during the year to have chronic subclinical mastitis. The aim of the study was to determine the prevalence of subclinical mastitis and chronic subclinical mastitis in Finland in 1991, 2001 and 2010 and to investigate cow and herd factors associated with elevated SCC.

Results

Prevalence of subclinical mastitis in Finland decreased over recent decades from 22.3% (1991) and 20.1% (2001) to 19.0% (2010). Prevalence of chronic subclinical mastitis was 20.4% in 1991, 15.5% in 2001 and 16.1% in 2010. The most significant cow and herd factors associated with subclinical mastitis or high milk SCC were increasing parity, Holstein breed, free-stalls with an automatic milking system and organic production. Milk SCC were highest from July to September. Main factors associated with chronic mastitis were increasing parity and Holstein breed.

Conclusions

Prevalence of subclinical mastitis in Finland decreased over recent decades, the greatest change taking place during the first decade of the study. Prevalence of chronic subclinical mastitis significantly decreased from 1991. The most significant factors associated with both types of mastitis were increasing parity and Holstein breed, and for subclinical mastitis also free-stalls with automatic milking. National surveys on mastitis prevalence should be carried out at regular intervals to monitor udder health of dairy cows and to study the impact of the ongoing structural changes in the dairy industry to enable interventions related to udder health to be made when needed.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13028-017-0288-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Differences in sheep and goats milk microbiological profile between conventional and organic farming systems in Greece

The aim of this study was to examine differences in the microbiological profile and antimicrobial resistance of bacteria isolated from milk from organic and conventional sheep and goat farms. Twenty-five organic and 25 conventional sheep and goat farms in the region of Thessaly, Greece participated in this study. A standardised detailed questionnaire was used to describe farming practices. A total of 50 samples were collected and analysed for total viable count (TVC), total coliform count (TCC) and somatic cell count (SCC), while Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli were isolated using standard methods. Isolates were identified at species level by Api-test and Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionisation-Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). Susceptibility to a panel of 20 for E. coli and 16 for S. aureus antimicrobials was determined by the agar dilution method. Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE) was performed for S. aureus and E. coli isolates to determine predominant clones. Lower counts of TVC, TCC and SCC were identified in milk from the organic farms, possibly due to differences in the hygienic farming practices found on those farms. API-tests and MALDI-TOF MS showed no significant differences in the S. aureus and E. coli isolates. Overall, antimicrobial resistance rates were low, while a statistically higher percentage was estimated among strains originating from conventional farms in comparison with organic farms, possibly due to the restriction of antibiotic use in organic farming. PFGE revealed diversity among S. aureus and E. coli populations in both organic and conventional farms indicating circulation of 2-3 main clones changing slightly during their evolution. Consequently, there is evidence that milk from the organic farms presents a better microbiological profile when compared with milk from conventional farms.

Estudo longitudinal da mastite subclínica e produção de leite em um rebanho mestiço Holandês-Zebu criado em sistema semi-intensivo

Acompanhou-se durante 15 meses um rebanho leiteiro, composto por diferentes graus de sangue Holandês-Zebu (HZ), em sistema semi-intensivo. Objetivou-se avaliar o comportamento longitudinal da contagem de células somáticas (CCS) e a influência da mastite subclínica (MS) na produção total e no pico de produção de leite de vacas mestiças HZ. Inicialmente, coletaram-se amostras de leite individual para análise microbiológica, a fim de identificar o perfil de patógenos causadores de mastite. Realizou-se mensalmente a CCS com o intuito de monitorar a MS. Semanalmente, avaliou-se a produção de leite. Para avaliar o efeito da CCS sobre a produção de leite, as vacas foram divididas em dois grupos, <200.000 e ≥200.000 células/mL. Os patógenos encontrados foram Streptococcusambientais (34%), células leveduriformes (29%), Staphylococcuscoagulase negativa (31%) e Staphylococcus aureus (6%), com CCS de 1.100.000, 845.000, 275.000 e 620.000, respectivamente. A CCS média variou de 255.000 a 975.000 cél./mL, com prevalência média de 42% de MS. Vacas primíparas com MS apresentaram redução da produção total de leite quando comparadas às primíparas sem MS (P<0,05). Em contraste, a produção total das vacas multíparas não foi alterada. Não foram observadas diferenças entre a CCS, a produção total e o pico de produção nos diferentes graus de sangue HZ (P>0,05). A CCS das vacas diferiu (P<0,01) entre a secagem e o pós-parto imediato. A manutenção das condições de elevado risco ambiental em rebanho leiteiro manejado em sistema semi-intensivo pode minimizar as variações na ocorrência de MS nos períodos de verão e inverno, possibilitando a expressão do problema em vacas de diferentes graus de sangue HZ. Em um rebanho caracterizado pela ocorrência de mastite predominantemente ambiental, a produção de leite na lactação total de vacas primíparas com CCS superior a 200.000 cél./mL é reduzida em comparação com vacas com CCS inferior a 200.000 cél./mL, o que não foi observado em vacas multíparas.

Use of homeopathy in organic dairy farming in Spain

Organic farming principles promote the use of unconventional therapies as an alternative to chemical substances (which are limited by organic regulations), with homeopathy being the most extensive. Traditionally, Spain has had little faith in homeopathy but its use in organic farming is growing. Fifty-six Spanish organic dairy farmers were interviewed to obtain what we believe to be the first data on the use of homeopathy in organic dairy cattle in Spain. Only 32% of farms use some sort of alternative therapy (16.1% homeopathy, 10.7% phytotherapy and 5.3% using both therapies) and interestingly, a clear geographical pattern showing a higher use towards the East (similar to that in the human population) was observed. The main motivation to use homeopathy was the need to reduce chemical substances promoted by organic regulations, and the treatment of clinical mastitis being the principle reason. The number of total treatments was lower in farms using homeopathy compared with those applying allopathic therapies (0.13 and 0.54 treatments/cow/year respectively) and although the bulk SCC was significantly higher (p < 0.001) in these farms (161,826 and 111,218 cel/ml, respectively) it did not have any negative economical penalty for the farmer and milk quality was not affected complying with the required standards; on the contrary homeopathic therapies seems to be an alternative for reducing antibiotic treatments, allowing farmers to meet the organic farming principles.

Invited review: Changes in the dairy industry affecting dairy cattle health and welfare

The dairy industry in the developed world has undergone profound changes over recent decades. In this paper, we present an overview of some of the most important recent changes in the dairy industry that affect health and welfare of dairy cows, as well as the science associated with these changes. Additionally, knowledge gaps are identified where research is needed to guide the dairy industry through changes that are occurring now or that we expect will occur in the future. The number of farms has decreased considerably, whereas herd size has increased. As a result, an increasing number of dairy farms depend on hired (nonfamily) labor. Regular professional communication and establishment of farm-specific protocols are essential to minimize human errors and ensure consistency of practices. Average milk production per cow has increased, partly because of improvements in nutrition and management but also because of genetic selection for milk production. Adoption of new technologies (e.g., automated calf feeders, cow activity monitors, and automated milking systems) is accelerating. However, utilization of the data and action lists that these systems generate for health and welfare of livestock is still largely unrealized, and more training of dairy farmers, their employees, and their advisors is necessary. Concurrently, to remain competitive and to preserve their social license to operate, farmers are increasingly required to adopt increased standards for food safety and biosecurity, become less reliant on the use of antimicrobials and hormones, and provide assurances regarding animal welfare. Partly because of increasing herd size but also in response to animal welfare regulations in some countries, the proportion of dairy herds housed in tiestalls has decreased considerably. Although in some countries access to pasture is regulated, in countries that traditionally practiced seasonal grazing, fewer farmers let their dairy cows graze in the summer. The proportion of organic dairy farms has increased globally and, given the pressure to decrease the use of antimicrobials and hormones, conventional farms may be able to learn from well-managed organic farms. The possibilities of using milk for disease diagnostics and monitoring are considerable, and dairy herd improvement associations will continue to expand the number of tests offered to diagnose diseases and pregnancy. Genetic and genomic selection for increased resistance to disease offers substantial potential but requires collection of additional phenotypic data. There is every expectation that changes in the dairy industry will be further accentuated and additional novel technologies and different management practices will be adopted in the future.

Strategies used by dairy family farmers in the south of Brazil to comply with organic regulations

The aims of this study were to investigate the environmental, feeding, and health management of organic (ORG) family dairy farms in the south of Brazil in comparison with conventional (CONV) farms, and to assess their degree of compliance with Brazilian organic legislation and the strategies they adopt to accomplish this (n=17 per group). During 2 visits to each farm in March and September, 2010, observations were made on the environment, feed, and health management, followed by bulk milk testing, clinical evaluation, and breed assessment of each individual cow, and an evaluation of diseases and treatments reported within the period. Additional data were collected directly from the farmers through direct interviews. The number of lactating cows was, on average, 11 (range 5 to 19) in the ORG and 16 (range 7 to 42) in the CONV herds. The ORG herds presented a lower percentage of the Holstein breed; whereas CONV herds were predominantly Holstein, in the ORG herds, only 2 herds were 100% Holstein and the remaining herds were crosses of Holstein, Jersey, and Gir (Bos indicus) cattle. Milk production per cow was lower (10.2 vs. 15.1 ± 1.22 L/cow, respectively) in ORG than in the CONV farms. The ORG farms offered less concentrate feed than CONV farms and had better pasture management. Organic farmers reported using phytotherapic and homeopathic products, and pasture management as a strategy to keep infection levels of endo- and ectoparasites low, whereas CONV farmers regularly used anthelmintics and acaricides. Milk production was lower in ORG than in CONV farms, but cow health and condition scores were broadly similar, indicating that the with these strategies ORG farms were able to secure levels of animal welfare comparable with CONV farms while complying with organic regulation, although at the cost of lower cow productivity.

Animal Health and Welfare Issues Facing Organic Production Systems

Simple Summary

The demand for organically grown, animal derived produce is increasing due to a growing desire for consumer products that have minimal chemical inputs and high animal welfare standards. Evaluation of the scientific literature suggests that a major challenge facing organic animal production systems is the management and treatment of health-related issues. However, implementation of effective management practices can help organic animal producers achieve and maintain high standards of health and welfare, which is necessary to assure consumers that organic animal-based food and fibre has not only been produced with minimal or no chemical input, but under high standards of animal welfare.

Abstract

The demand for organically-grown produce is increasing worldwide, with one of the drivers being an expectation among consumers that animals have been farmed to a high standard of animal welfare. This review evaluates whether this expectation is in fact being met, by describing the current level of science-based knowledge of animal health and welfare in organic systems. The primary welfare risk in organic production systems appears to be related to animal health. Organic farms use a combination of management practices, alternative and complementary remedies and convenional medicines to manage the health of their animals and in many cases these are at least as effective as management practices employed by non-organic producers. However, in contrast to non-organic systems, there is still a lack of scientifically evaluated, organically acceptable therapeutic treatments that organic animal producers can use when current management practices are not sufficient to maintain the health of their animals. The development of such treatments are necessary to assure consumers that organic animal-based food and fibre has not only been produced with minimal or no chemical input, but under high standards of animal welfare.

Somatic cells count in cow's bulk tank milk

The objective of this study was therefore to present factors affecting somatic cell counts in bovine bulk milk as a result of intramammary infections as well as non-infectious factors. The paper presents also the impact of on-farm management practices on the level of bulk milk somatic cell counts and presents quality indicators in bulk tank milk. At the farm level bulk milk bacterial infection takes place through three main sources: bacterial contamination from the external surface of the udder and teats, from the surface of the milking equipment, and from mastitis microorganisms within the udder. The threshold of 200,000 cells/ml identifies bacteriological negative quarters of the udder. The counts of mammary pathogens in bulk tank milk are relatively low, on average not exceeding 1,000 cfu/ml. Environmental pathogens predominate in bulk tank milk samples with somatic cells count <300 × 10(3) ml.

Calving difficulty in dairy cows has a longer effect on saleable milk yield than on estimated milk production

A difficult calving affects the welfare of the cow and has economic implications for the farm. The degree of calving difficulty can vary from no assistance needed through a slight pull required to surgery being needed. With respect to milk production, it is not clear at which degree of calving difficulty adverse effects occur or for how long they last. Studies usually only consider the milk produced by animals who completed full lactations but the saleable milk production of the whole herd, regardless of each cow having achieved a full lactation, might be a better indicator of the productivity of the cows and the underlying stresses they experience, as well as being more representative of the real losses that producers incur. The objective of this study was to investigate how various degrees of calving difficulty would alter both the cow's milk production and their production of saleable milk over different stages of their subsequent lactation. The calving difficulty scores and the subsequent milk production were retrieved from an experimental dairy farm (in the United Kingdom) for 2 herds that contained 2,430 and 1,413 lactations. To account for milk saleable by the farmer, individual cumulative saleable milk yields, referred to as saleable milk yields (SMY), were calculated at 30, 60, 90, and 300 d in milk unconditional on the animal having achieved the lactation stage of interest. Lactation SMY were obtained based on the real lactation length achieved by the animal. Mean daily milk yields were also calculated for the same lactation stages as an estimate of the cow's milk production (CMP). Calving difficulty impaired milk production of dairy cows in terms of CMP and SMY in both herds, highlighting impaired income for dairy producers as well as detrimental effects to the productivity of the cows and potentially impaired health and survival. The management of the herd affected the presence of an effect of each degree of difficulty on SMY and CMP as well as its magnitude and duration. The analysis of SMY, independently of each animal having achieved a full lactation, could be a more sensitive indicator of the subsequent long-lasting biological stresses than CMP alone.