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Bochniarz M, Hahaj-Siembida A, Krajewska-Wędzina M, Osińska M, Tracz A, Trościańczyk A, Brodzki P, Krakowski L, Kosior-Korzecka U, Nowakiewicz A. Cytokine inflammatory response in dairy cows with mastitis caused by Streptococcus agalactiae. J Vet Res 2024; 68:115-121. [PMID: 38525224 PMCID: PMC10960265 DOI: 10.2478/jvetres-2024-0002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 03/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction The aim of the study was evaluation of the concentrations of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-8, IL-12β and tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) in the serum and milk of cows with mastitis caused by Streptococcus agalactiae. Material and Methods A total of 60 milk samples from diseased cows and 30 milk samples from healthy cows were included in the study. Blood and milk samples were taken from Holstein-Friesian cows from three herds (two in tie-stall and one in a free-stall housing system) in Lublin Province in Poland. The concentrations of cytokines in blood serum and quarter milk samples were determined by ELISA. Results The levels of IL-1β, IL-8, IL-12β and TNF-α were significantly higher in the milk of cows suffering from mastitis caused by S. agalactiae compared to the milk of healthy cows (263.03 vs 55.36 pg/mL, 298.34 vs 131.82 pg/mL, 604.10 vs 139.17 pg/mL and 460.86 vs 78.82 pg/mL, respectively). In the group of sick cows, cytokine levels were significantly higher in milk than in serum (263.03 vs 55.25 pg/mL for IL-1β, 298.34 vs 164.22 pg/mL for IL-8, 604.10 vs 70.34 pg/mL for IL-12β and 460.86 vs 104.78 pg/mL for TNF-α). Conclusion The results confirm the involvement of the entire bovine immune system to protect against the bacteria first locally in the udder. The response of the mammary gland to infection caused by S. agalactiae is rapid and already very strong at the beginning of the infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariola Bochniarz
- Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 20-033Lublin, Poland
| | - Agata Hahaj-Siembida
- Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 20-033Lublin, Poland
| | - Monika Krajewska-Wędzina
- Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 20-033Lublin, Poland
- Department of Microbiology, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100Puławy, Poland
| | - Marcelina Osińska
- Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 20-033Lublin, Poland
| | - Anna Tracz
- Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 20-033Lublin, Poland
| | - Aleksandra Trościańczyk
- Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 20-033Lublin, Poland
| | - Piotr Brodzki
- Department and Clinic of Animal Reproduction, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences, 20-612Lublin, Poland
| | - Leszek Krakowski
- Department and Clinic of Animal Reproduction, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences, 20-612Lublin, Poland
| | - Urszula Kosior-Korzecka
- Department of Preclinical Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 20-033Lublin, Poland
| | - Aneta Nowakiewicz
- Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 20-033Lublin, Poland
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Giannuzzi D, Capra E, Bisutti V, Vanzin A, Marsan PA, Cecchinato A, Pegolo S. Methylome-wide analysis of milk somatic cells upon subclinical mastitis in dairy cattle. J Dairy Sci 2024; 107:1805-1820. [PMID: 37939836 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2023-23821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 11/10/2023]
Abstract
Better understanding of the molecular mechanisms behind bovine mastitis is fundamental for improving the management of this disease, which continues to be of major concern for the dairy industry, especially in its subclinical form. Disease severity and progression depend on numerous aspects, such as livestock genetics, and the interaction between the causative agent, the host, and the environment. In this context, epigenetic mechanisms have proven to have a role in controlling the response of the animal to inflammation. Therefore, in this study we aimed to explore genome-wide DNA methylation of milk somatic cells (SC) in healthy cows (n = 15) and cows affected by naturally occurring subclinical mastitis by Streptococcus agalactiae (n = 12) and Prototheca spp. (n = 11), to better understand the role of SC methylome in the host response to disease. Differentially methylated regions (DMR) were evaluated comparing: (1) Strep. agalactiae-infected versus healthy; (2) Prototheca-infected versus healthy, and (3) mastitis versus healthy and (4) Strep. agalactiae-infected versus Prototheca-infected. The functional analysis was performed at 2 levels. To begin with, we extracted differentially methylated genes (DMG) from promoter DMR, which were analyzed using the Cytoscape ClueGO plug-in. Coupled with this DMG-driven approach, all the genes associated with promoter-methylated regions were fed to the Pathifier algorithm. From the DMR analysis, we identified 1,081 hypermethylated and 361 hypomethylated promoter regions in Strep. agalactiae-infected animals, while 1,514 hypermethylated and 358 hypomethylated promoter regions were identified in Prototheca-infected animals, when compared with the healthy controls. When considering infected animals as a whole group (regardless of the pathogen), we found 1,576 hypermethylated and 460 hypomethylated promoter regions. Both pathogens were associated with methylation differences in genes involved in pathways related to meiosis, reproduction and tissue remodeling. Exploring the whole methylome, in subclinically infected cows we observed a strong deregulation of immune-related pathways, such as nuclear factor kB and toll-like receptors signaling pathways, and of energy-related pathways such as the tricarboxylic acid cycle and unsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis. In conclusion, no evident pathogen-specific SC methylome signature was detected in the present study. Overall, we observed a clear regulation of host immune response driven by DNA methylation upon subclinical mastitis. Further studies on a larger cohort of animals are needed to validate our results and to possibly identify a unique SC methylome that signifies pathogen-specific alterations.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Giannuzzi
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, 35020, Legnaro, Italy
| | - E Capra
- Institute of Agricultural Biology and Biotechnology, National Research Council (IBBA CNR), 26900, Lodi, Italy
| | - V Bisutti
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, 35020, Legnaro, Italy.
| | - A Vanzin
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, 35020, Legnaro, Italy
| | - P Ajmone Marsan
- Department of Animal Science, Food and Nutrition (DIANA), Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 29122, Piacenza, Italy
| | - A Cecchinato
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, 35020, Legnaro, Italy
| | - S Pegolo
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, 35020, Legnaro, Italy
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Choudhary RK, Olszanski L, McFadden TB, Lalonde C, Spitzer A, Shangraw EM, Rodrigues RO, Zhao FQ. Systemic and local responses of cytokines and tissue histology following intramammary lipopolysaccharide challenge in dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 2024; 107:1299-1310. [PMID: 37777007 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2023-23543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 10/02/2023]
Abstract
During bovine mastitis, immune responses include the release of cytokines and the recruitment of leukocytes, resulting in profound structural and functional changes in the mammary gland. Our aims were to delineate systemic and local cytokine responses and to quantify histological changes in the mammary tissue of lactating cows after acute intramammary lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge. Ten multiparous dairy cows were paired to either treatment (TRT) or control (CON) groups. For TRT cows, one side of the udder was randomly assigned to receive treatment with LPS (50 µg in 10 mL of saline, TL) into both the front and rear quarters; the contralateral quarters received saline (10 mL). Udder-halves of CON cows were similarly assigned randomly to receive either saline (10 mL, CS) or no infusion (untreated). Temporal changes in the concentrations of 15 cytokines in the blood (0, 3, 6, 12, and 24 h relative to the LPS infusion) and in mammary tissue (0, 3, and 12 h) were determined, as were concomitant changes in mammary histology. The cytokines IL-6, IL-10, MCP-1, and MIP-1β showed a systemic response as their concentrations were significantly different in the plasma of TRT cows as compared with CON cows after LPS challenge. The cytokines IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-17A, IL-36RA, IP-10, MCP-1, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, TNF-α, and VEGF-A showed a local response in TL glands, and 8 cytokines, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, IL-17A, IL-36RA, IP-10, MIP-1β, and VEGF-A showed systemic changes in the nonchallenged mammary glands adjacent to LPS-infused glands. Endotoxin challenge evoked changes in the histology of mammary tissue that included a 5.2- and 7.2-fold increases in the number of neutrophils in alveolar lumens at 3 h and 12 h, respectively. In summary, LPS challenge induced specific local and systemic responses in cytokine induction and elicited neutrophil infiltration in bovine mammary tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ratan K Choudhary
- Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405
| | - Laura Olszanski
- Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405
| | - Thomas B McFadden
- Division of Animal Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211
| | - Christian Lalonde
- Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405
| | - Alexander Spitzer
- Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405
| | - Erin M Shangraw
- Division of Animal Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211
| | | | - Feng-Qi Zhao
- Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405.
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HUANG CH, KAYANO M, KUSABA N. Pathogen and severity-dependent immune responses in bovine mastitis: highlight the dynamics of differential somatic cell count. J Vet Med Sci 2024; 86:7-17. [PMID: 37981317 PMCID: PMC10849865 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.23-0261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2023] [Accepted: 11/05/2023] [Indexed: 11/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Immune responses in bovine clinical mastitis (CM) probably differ depending on the causative pathogen and disease severity. The observational study aimed to investigate whether both factors are associated with the dynamics of immune indicators, including somatic cell score (SCS), white blood cell count (WBC), serum albumin/globulin (A/G) ratio, and differential somatic cell count (DSCC). We collected blood and milk samples 0, 3, 5, 7, 14, and 21 days after CM occurred in 38 cows, and grouped the cases (n=49) by disease severity and pathogen. We analyzed data using a linear mixed model considering the effects of pathogens and severity, calculated estimated-marginal means for indicators at each time point, and compared the means between groups. The dynamics of WBC varied depending on both pathogen and severity. WBC changed drastically in either severe or coliform-caused CM, slightly elevated in streptococcal mastitis, but unchanged in staphylococcal mastitis. This possibly relates to the deficiency in innate immune response toward staphylococci. The A/G ratio also changed depending on severity, as it dropped sharply only in severe CM. We observed a non-linear relationship between DSCC and SCS, possibly due to mammary epithelial cells shedding in milk when CM occurred. When cows recovering from Streptococcus dysgalatiae mastitis, DSCC decreased while SCS remained high, suggesting a healing process requiring more macrophages. Our results demonstrate that both the severity and pathogen are associated with immune responses in CM, providing insights into mastitis pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Che-Hsuan HUANG
- Field Center of Animal Science and Agriculture, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
- Department of Life and Food Science, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Mitsunori KAYANO
- Research Center for Global Agromedicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Nobuyuki KUSABA
- Field Center of Animal Science and Agriculture, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
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Plattner S, Kammer M, Walleser E, Plattner S, Panne N, Baumgartner C, Döpfer D, Mansfeld R. [Use of milk haptoglobin concentration as an indicator in animal health monitoring of dairy cows]. Tierarztl Prax Ausg G Grosstiere Nutztiere 2023; 51:346-357. [PMID: 38056469 DOI: 10.1055/a-2199-1754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/08/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of the present study was to investigate relationships between elevated haptoglobin concentrations in milk and clinical as well as laboratory parameters in early lactating dairy cows. Furthermore, cut-off values should be identified for the differentiation of healthy and affected animals. MATERIAL AND METHODS 1462 dairy cows between 5.-65. days in milk were examined on 68 Bavarian farms. Milk and blood samples were taken once a week for a 7-week period per farm and body-condition-scoring, backfat thickness measurement and Metricheck examination, to evaluate uterine health, were performed. Milk samples were analysed for milk fat, milk protein, lactose, urea, ß-hydroxybutyrate and non-esterified fatty acids (indirect measurement, based on IR spectra), cell count, and milk haptoglobin. Blood samples were analysed for creatinine, aspartate aminotransferase, gamma-glutamyl transferase, glutamate dehydrogenase, total protein, albumin, creatine kinase, ß-hydroxybutyrate, non-esterified fatty acids, and blood haptoglobin.Cluster analyses were performed to determine cut-off values for haptoglobin. RESULTS Besides milk haptoglobin (µg/ml) and blood haptoglobin (µg/ml), cell count (cells/ml milk), milk fat (%), milk protein (%), non-esterified fatty acids in blood (mmol/l), lactation number, days in milk, breed, season, and milk yield (kg) were included as significant input variables (p<0.005) in the cluster analyses. Cluster analysis, using k-means resp. k-prototypes algorithms, resulted in 5 (clusters 1-5 M1) resp. 4 different clusters (clusters 0-3 M2 and 0-3 B).A cut-off value of 0.5 µg/ml haptoglobin in milk was determined for the differentiation of healthy and affected animals. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE As milk is an easily available substrate, routine determination of haptoglobin in milk might be a suitable parameter for animal health monitoring. Using the detected cut-off value, apparently healthy animals with subclinical inflammatory diseases can be identified more quickly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Plattner
- Klinik für Wiederkäuer mit Ambulanz und Bestandsbetreuung, Tierärztliche Fakultät, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München
| | - Martin Kammer
- Landeskuratorium der Erzeugerringe für tierische Veredelung Bayern e. V., München
| | - Emil Walleser
- University of Wisconsin - Madison, School of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Medical Science, USA
| | - Stefan Plattner
- Klinik für Wiederkäuer mit Ambulanz und Bestandsbetreuung, Tierärztliche Fakultät, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München
| | - Nicola Panne
- Klinik für Wiederkäuer mit Ambulanz und Bestandsbetreuung, Tierärztliche Fakultät, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München
| | | | - Dörte Döpfer
- University of Wisconsin - Madison, School of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Medical Science, USA
| | - Rolf Mansfeld
- Klinik für Wiederkäuer mit Ambulanz und Bestandsbetreuung, Tierärztliche Fakultät, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München
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Sun X, Yu Z, Liang C, Xie S, Wang H, Wang J, Yang Y, Han R. Comparative analysis of changes in whey proteins of goat milk throughout the lactation cycle using quantitative proteomics. J Dairy Sci 2022; 106:792-806. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2022-21800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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7
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Umesh A, Guttula PK, Gupta MK. Prediction of potential molecular markers of bovine mastitis by meta-analysis of differentially expressed genes using combined p value and robust rank aggregation. Trop Anim Health Prod 2022; 54:269. [PMID: 35984525 DOI: 10.1007/s11250-022-03258-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Bovine mastitis causes significant economic loss to the dairy industry by affecting milk quality and quantity. Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus are the two common mastitis-causing bacteria among the consortia of mastitis pathogens, wherein E. coli is an opportunistic environmental pathogen, and S. aureus is a contagious pathogen. This study was designed to predict molecular markers of bovine mastitis by meta-analysis of differentially expressed genes (DEG) in E. coli- or S. aureus-infected mammary epithelial cells (MECs) using p value combination and robust rank aggregation (RRA) methods. High-throughput transcriptome of bovine MECs, infected with E. coli or S. aureus, were analyzed, and correlation of z-scores were computed for the expression datasets to identify the lineage profile and functional ontology of DEGs. Key pathways enriched in infected MECs were deciphered by Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA), following which combined p value and RRA were used to perform DEG meta-analysis to limit type I error in the analysis. The miRNA-gene networks were then built to uncover potential molecular markers of mastitis. Lineage profiling of MECs showed that the gene expression levels were associated with mammary tissue lineage. The up-regulated genes were enriched in immune-related pathways, whereas down-regulated genes influenced the cellular processes. GSEA analysis of DEGs deciphered the involvement of Toll-like receptor (TLR), and NF-kappa B signaling pathway during infection. Comparison after meta-analysis yielded with genes ZC3H12A, RND1, and MAP3K8 having significant expression levels in both E. coli and S. aureus dataset, and on evaluating miRNA-gene network, 7 pairs were common to both sets identifying them as potential molecular markers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anushri Umesh
- Department of Biotechnology and Medical Engineering / Center for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Odisha, 769008, India
| | - Praveen Kumar Guttula
- Department of Biotechnology and Medical Engineering / Center for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Odisha, 769008, India
| | - Mukesh Kumar Gupta
- Department of Biotechnology and Medical Engineering / Center for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Odisha, 769008, India.
- Gene Manipulation Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology and Medical Engineering, Center for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Odisha, 769008, India.
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Zhang Q, Bai X, Shi J, Wang X, Zhang B, Dai L, Lin T, Gao Y, Zhang Y, Zhao X. DIA proteomics identified the potential targets associated with angiogenesis in the mammary glands of dairy cows with hemorrhagic mastitis. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:980963. [PMID: 36003411 PMCID: PMC9393364 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.980963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Hemorrhagic mastitis (HM) in dairy cows caused great economic losses in the dairy industry due to decreased milk production and increased costs associated with cattle management and treatment. However, the pathological and molecular mechanisms of HM are not well-understood. The present study aimed to investigate differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) associated with HM according to data-independent acquisition (DIA) proteomics. Compared to the mammary glands of healthylactating Holstein cows (Control, C group), the pathology of the HM group displayed massive alveolar infiltration of hemocytes and neutrophils, and the blood vessels, including arteriole, venules and capillaries were incomplete and damaged, with a loss of endothelial cells. DIA proteomics results showed that a total of 3,739 DEPs and 819 biological process terms were screened in the HM group. We focused on the blood, permeability of blood vessel, vascular and angiogenesis of mammary glands, and a total of 99 candidate DEPs, including 60 up- and 39 down-regulated DEPs, were obtained from the Gene Ontology (GO) and Pathway enrichment analyses. Phenotype prediction and function analysis of the DEPs revealed that three DEPs, particularly Caveolin-1(CAV1), were participated in the regulation of angiogenesis. Immunohistochemical and immunofluorescence staining showed that the CAV1 protein was present mainly in the mammary epithelial cells, vascular endothelial cells and vascular smooth muscle cells. The expression level of CAV1 mRNA and protein in the HM group was significantly down-regulated. The results will be helpful to the further understanding of the pathological and molecular mechanisms of HM in dairy cows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quanwei Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agriculture University, Lanzhou, China
- College of Life Science and Technology, Gansu Agriculture University, Lanzhou, China
- Gansu Key Laboratory of Animal Reproductive Physiology and Reproductive Regulation, Lanzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Quanwei Zhang
| | - Xu Bai
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agriculture University, Lanzhou, China
- Gansu Key Laboratory of Animal Reproductive Physiology and Reproductive Regulation, Lanzhou, China
| | - Jun Shi
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agriculture University, Lanzhou, China
- Gansu Key Laboratory of Animal Reproductive Physiology and Reproductive Regulation, Lanzhou, China
| | - Xueying Wang
- College of Life Science and Technology, Gansu Agriculture University, Lanzhou, China
- Gansu Key Laboratory of Animal Reproductive Physiology and Reproductive Regulation, Lanzhou, China
| | - Bohao Zhang
- College of Life Science and Technology, Gansu Agriculture University, Lanzhou, China
- Gansu Key Laboratory of Animal Reproductive Physiology and Reproductive Regulation, Lanzhou, China
| | - Lijun Dai
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agriculture University, Lanzhou, China
- Gansu Key Laboratory of Animal Reproductive Physiology and Reproductive Regulation, Lanzhou, China
| | - Ting Lin
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agriculture University, Lanzhou, China
- Gansu Key Laboratory of Animal Reproductive Physiology and Reproductive Regulation, Lanzhou, China
| | - Yuan Gao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agriculture University, Lanzhou, China
- Gansu Key Laboratory of Animal Reproductive Physiology and Reproductive Regulation, Lanzhou, China
| | - Yong Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agriculture University, Lanzhou, China
- College of Life Science and Technology, Gansu Agriculture University, Lanzhou, China
- Gansu Key Laboratory of Animal Reproductive Physiology and Reproductive Regulation, Lanzhou, China
| | - Xingxu Zhao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agriculture University, Lanzhou, China
- College of Life Science and Technology, Gansu Agriculture University, Lanzhou, China
- Gansu Key Laboratory of Animal Reproductive Physiology and Reproductive Regulation, Lanzhou, China
- Xingxu Zhao
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Identification of Inflammatory and Regulatory Cytokines IL-1α-, IL-4-, IL-6-, IL-12-, IL-13-, IL-17A-, TNF-α-, and IFN-γ-Producing Cells in the Milk of Dairy Cows with Subclinical and Clinical Mastitis. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11030372. [PMID: 35335696 PMCID: PMC8954094 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11030372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Revised: 03/11/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In naturally occurring bovine mastitis, effects of infection depend on the host inflammatory response, including the effects of secreted cytokines. Knowledge about the inflammatory and regulatory cytokines in milk cells of free-stall barn dairy cows and in naturally occurring mastitis is lacking as most studies focus on induced mastitis. Hereby, the aim of the study was to determine inflammatory and regulatory cytokines in the milk of dairy cows with subclinical and clinical mastitis. The following examinations of milk samples were performed: differential counting of somatic cells (SCC), bacteriological examination, and immunocytochemical analysis. Mean SCC increased in subclinical and clinical mastitis cases. The number of pathogenic mastitis-causing bacteria on plates increased in subclinical mastitis cases but decreased in clinical mastitis. The inflammatory and regulatory markers in the milk cells of healthy cows showed the highest mean cell numbers (%). In mastitis cases, immunoreactivity was more pronounced for IL-4, IL-6, IL-12, IL-13, IL-17A, TNF-α, and IFN-γ. Data about subclinical and clinical mastitis demonstrate inflammatory responses to intramammary infection driven by IL-1α, IL-4, and IL-17A. Moreover, the host defense response in mastitis is characterized by continuation or resolution of initial inflammation. IL-12 and INF-γ immunoreactivity was recognized to differ mastitis cases from the relative health status.
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Giagu A, Penati M, Traini S, Dore S, Addis MF. Milk proteins as mastitis markers in dairy ruminants - a systematic review. Vet Res Commun 2022; 46:329-351. [PMID: 35195874 PMCID: PMC9165246 DOI: 10.1007/s11259-022-09901-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Mastitis is one of the most impacting diseases in dairy farming, and its sensitive and specific detection is therefore of the greatest importance. The clinical evaluation of udder and mammary secretions is typically combined with the milk Somatic Cell Count (SCC) and often accompanied by its bacteriological culture to identify the causative microorganism. In a constant search for improvement, several non-enzymatic milk proteins, including milk amyloid A (M-SAA), haptoglobin (HP), cathelicidin (CATH), and lactoferrin (LF), have been investigated as alternative biomarkers of mastitis for their relationship with mammary gland inflammation, and immunoassay techniques have been developed for detection with varying degrees of success. To provide a general overview of their implementation in the different dairy species, we carried out a systematic review of the scientific literature using the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis) guidelines. Our review question falls within the type “Diagnostic test accuracy questions” and aims at answering the diagnostic question: “Which are the diagnostic performances of mastitis protein biomarkers investigated by immunoassays in ruminant milk?”. Based on 13 keywords combined into 42 searches, 523 manuscripts were extracted from three scientific databases. Of these, 33 passed the duplicate removal, title, abstract, and full-text screening for conformity to the review question and document type: 78.8% investigated cows, 12.1% sheep, 9.1% goats, and 6.1% buffaloes (some included more than one dairy species). The most frequently mentioned protein was M-SAA (48.5%), followed by HP (27.3%), CATH (24.2%) and LF (21.2%). However, the large amount of heterogeneity among studies in terms of animal selection criteria (45.5%), index test (87.9%), and standard reference test (27.3%) resulted in a collection of data not amenable to meta-analysis, a common finding illustrating how important it is for case definitions and other criteria to be standardized between studies. Therefore, results are presented according to the SWiM (Synthesis Without Meta-analysis) guidelines. We summarize the main findings reported in the 33 selected articles for the different markers and report their results in form of comparative tables including sample selection criteria, marker values, and diagnostic performances, where available. Finally, we report the study limitations and bias assessment findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Giagu
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sardegna, Centro di Referenza Nazionale per le Mastopatie degli Ovini e dei Caprini, Sassari, Italy
- ARES Sardegna, ASL, Nuoro, Italy
| | - Martina Penati
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria e Scienze Animali, Università di Milano, Lodi, Italy
| | - Sara Traini
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria e Scienze Animali, Università di Milano, Lodi, Italy
| | - Simone Dore
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sardegna, Centro di Referenza Nazionale per le Mastopatie degli Ovini e dei Caprini, Sassari, Italy
| | - Maria Filippa Addis
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria e Scienze Animali, Università di Milano, Lodi, Italy.
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11
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Ex vivo tumor necrosis factor-alpha response of blood leukocytes in Danish Holstein-Friesian cows stimulated by Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria isolated from mastitic milk. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2021; 234:110204. [PMID: 33611159 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2021.110204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Revised: 01/31/2021] [Accepted: 02/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
A whole blood stimulation assay was used to investigate the effects of parity, number of weeks after calving and Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria on the ex vivo TNF-α responsiveness of Danish Holstein-Friesian cows of first to third lactation (n = 28). Blood samples were collected in weeks 2, 3, 5 and 8 after parturition and stimulated with Escherichia coli LPS (10 μg/mL), Staphylococcus aureus peptidoglycan (PGN, 10 μg/mL) and dead Escherichia coli, Streptococcus uberis, Staphylococcus aureus, and Streptococcus dysgalactiae at a concentration of 2.5 × 106/mL. The antibiotic polymyxin-B (100 μg/mL) was added to the Gram-positive bacteria to avoid the influence of environmental endotoxin by ELISA test. Overall, parity had no effect, whereas number of weeks after calving altered the TNF-α responsiveness of the majority of the stimulants. Ex vivo, Gram-positive bacteria always resulted in a higher TNF-α response than Gram-negative bacteria with large differences within the individual cows. High correlations were found within the Gram-negative stimulants panel (r = 0.83) and within the Gram-positive (r = 0.81 to 0.86) stimulants panel except PGN. The higher TNF-α responsiveness by Gram-positive bacteria is in agreement with in vitro studies in human but in contrast to the in vivo TNF-α responsiveness in bovine udder.
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12
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Wollowski L, Heuwieser W, Kossatz A, Addis MF, Puggioni GMG, Meriaux L, Bertulat S. The value of the biomarkers cathelicidin, milk amyloid A, and haptoglobin to diagnose and classify clinical and subclinical mastitis. J Dairy Sci 2020; 104:2106-2122. [PMID: 33358157 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2020-18539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 09/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Timely and objective diagnosis and classification of mastitis is crucial to ensure adequate management and therapeutic decisions. Analyzing specific biomarkers in milk could be advantageous compared with subjective or semiquantitative criteria, such as palpation of the udder in clinical mastitis cases or evaluation of somatic cell count using cow side tests (e.g., California Mastitis Test) in subclinical mastitis quarters. The objective of this study was to investigate the diagnostic value of 3 biomarkers; cathelicidin, milk amyloid A, and haptoglobin for the diagnosis of subclinical and clinical mastitis. Furthermore, the suitability of these biomarkers to differentiate between mild, moderate, and severe clinical mastitis and the influence of different pathogens on biomarker levels was tested. A total of 67 healthy cows, 119 cows with subclinical mastitis, and 212 cows with clinical mastitis were enrolled in the study. Although cathelicidin, haptoglobin, and milk amyloid A were measured in all samples from healthy cows and those with subclinical mastitis, haptoglobin, and cathelicidin results were only available from 121 out of 212 cows with clinical mastitis. Milk amyloid A was measured in all samples. In cows with clinical mastitis, the mastitic quarter and a second healthy quarter serving as a healthy in-cow control quarter were sampled. It was possible to differentiate between healthy quarters, quarters with subclinical mastitis, and quarters with clinical mastitis using all 3 biomarkers. Concerning cathelicidin, thresholds were 0.000 [sensitivity (Se) = 0.83, specificity (Sp) = 0.97] and 0.053 (Se = 0.98, Sp = 0.99) for normalized optical density at 450 nm (NOD450) for differentiating between healthy quarters and quarters with subclinical or clinical mastitis, respectively. Thresholds of 1.28 µg/mL (Se = 0.65, Sp = 0.76) and 1.81 µg/mL (Se = 0.77, Sp = 0.83) for milk amyloid A and 3.65 µg/mL (Se = 0.92, Sp = 0.94) and 5.40 µg/mL mL (Se = 0.96, Sp = 0.99) for haptoglobin were calculated, respectively. Healthy in-cow control quarters from cows with CM showed elevated milk amyloid A and haptoglobin levels compared with healthy quarters from healthy cows. Only the level of milk amyloid A was higher in severe clinical mastitis cases compared with mild ones. In contrast to clinical mastitis, cathelicidin and haptoglobin in subclinical mastitis quarters were significantly influenced by different bacteriological results. The measurement of cathelicidin, milk amyloid A, and haptoglobin in milk proved to be a reliable method to detect quarters with subclinical or clinical mastitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Wollowski
- Clinic for Animal Reproduction, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Königsweg 65, 14163 Berlin, Germany
| | - W Heuwieser
- Clinic for Animal Reproduction, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Königsweg 65, 14163 Berlin, Germany.
| | - A Kossatz
- Clinic for Animal Reproduction, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Königsweg 65, 14163 Berlin, Germany
| | - M F Addis
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Via Celoria, 10, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - G M G Puggioni
- Porto Conte Ricerche, SP 55 Porto Conte/Capo Caccia, Km 8.400, Loc. Tramariglio, 07041 Alghero, Italy
| | - Laurent Meriaux
- Eilyps/Bioteck Lait, 17 Boulevard Nominoë, 35740 Pacé, France
| | - S Bertulat
- Clinic for Animal Reproduction, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Königsweg 65, 14163 Berlin, Germany
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13
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Huma ZI, Sharma N, Kour S, Tandon S, Guttula PK, Kour S, Singh AK, Singh R, Gupta MK. Putative biomarkers for early detection of mastitis in cattle. ANIMAL PRODUCTION SCIENCE 2020. [DOI: 10.1071/an19539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Context
Mastitis is an inflammation of mammary gland parenchyma, and is an unending cause of economic loss to the dairy industry. The interest in research on biomarker discovery for the diagnosis of bovine mastitis stems largely from the need to identify reliable biomarkers.
Aim
To determine the putative biomarkers of mastitis by using bioinformatics analysis, and experimental validation of pro-inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress biomarkers of the mammary gland in healthy and diseased animals.
Methods
Various in silico analysis tools were applied to screen for gene expression in mastitis. Milk, as well as blood samples, was collected aseptically from the animals, which were then classified into three groups; namely, clinical, subclinical and control. Samples were subjected to assay of pro-inflammatory cytokines and oxidative biomarkers using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits and the prescribed methodology respectively.
Key results
In silico analysis revealed that mastitis reduces the expression of fat metabolism and immune system-related genes, whereas it increased the expression of inflammatory genes. On laboratory analysis of cytokines and acute phase protein, it was revealed that interleukin-1∝, interleukin-8 and haptoglobin were significantly (P < 0.01) increased in both blood serum and milk whey in subclinical and clinical mastitis cows. On analysis of oxidative biomarkers, our results showed that oxidative stress was significantly (P < 0.05) increased with progression of mastitis in dairy cows. There was a significant (P < 0.05) increase in the blood serum level of malondialdehyde and nitric oxide, and a decrease in the level of anti-oxidant enzymes – glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase and catalase – compared with healthy animals.
Conclusion
In conclusion, bioinformatics analysis of high-throughput gene expression revealed the involvement of multiple pathways, including the inflammatory pathway, fatty acid pathway and triglyceride synthesis pathway, in mastitis. Experimental validation confirmed that interleukin-8 and haptoglobin are putative early diagnostic markers for mastitis in dairy cattle. This study also concluded that milk can be used for the detection of cytokines as a non-invasive technique.
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14
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Thomas F, Geraghty T, Simões P, Mshelbwala F, Haining H, Eckersall P. A pilot study of acute phase proteins as indicators of bovine mastitis caused by different pathogens. Res Vet Sci 2018; 119:176-181. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2018.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2018] [Revised: 05/05/2018] [Accepted: 06/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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15
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Santana AM, Thomas FC, Silva DG, McCulloch E, Vidal AMC, Burchmore RJS, Fagliari JJ, Eckersall PD. Reference 1D and 2D electrophoresis maps for potential disease related proteins in milk whey from lactating buffaloes and blood serum from buffalo calves (Water buffalo, Bubalus bubalis). Res Vet Sci 2018; 118:449-465. [PMID: 29734122 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2018.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2018] [Accepted: 04/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to identify potential disease related proteins in milk whey of lactating buffaloes and blood serum of buffalo calves, in order to define a reference electrophoresis map for 1-DE and 2-DE. Additionally, changes in some protein patterns from buffalo calves during salmonellosis and lactating buffaloes during mastitis are presented. Milk samples were collected and distributed into groups: Milk samples from healthy buffaloes (SCC < 100.000 cells/ml, negative microbiology and CMT) (G1, n = 5) and buffaloes with subclinical mastitis (SCC > 500.000 cells/ml, positive microbiology and CMT) (G2, n = 5). Blood samples from buffalo calves (n = 6) were collected, and three calves were experimentally infected with Salmonella Dublin and samples analyzed before (M0) and 72 h after inoculation (M1). 1-DE was accomplished by loading 10 μg of TP into SDS-PAGE, stained with Coomassie blue. 2-DE was accomplished by loading 200 μg of TP into 11 cm, pH 3-10 non-linear IPG strips, followed by SDS-PAGE, stained with Coomassie blue. Protein bands/spots were excised, subjected to tryptic in-gel digestion and analyzed by LC/ESI-MS/MS. Protein identity was assigned using NCBI databases. After bands/spots from 1-DE and 2-DE were analyzed, a protein map with 35 and 40 different identified proteins in blood serum and milk whey, respectively, was generated. Significant changes in patterns of haptoglobin were observed in buffalo calves with salmonellosis and in patterns of IgLC, β-lactoglobulin and α-lactalbumin of lactating buffaloes during mastitis. The establishment of a protein map for 1-DE and 2-DE, identifying potential disease related proteins, can help to address alterations during diseases in buffaloes.
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Affiliation(s)
- André M Santana
- Department of Veterinary Clinic and Surgery, School of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences, São Paulo State University (FCAV/UNESP), Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil.
| | - Funmilola C Thomas
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria
| | - Daniela G Silva
- Department of Veterinary Clinic and Surgery, School of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences, São Paulo State University (FCAV/UNESP), Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil
| | - Eilidh McCulloch
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Ana M C Vidal
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo (FZEA/USP), Pirassununga, SP, Brazil
| | - Richard J S Burchmore
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, Glasgow Polyomics Facility, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - José J Fagliari
- Department of Veterinary Clinic and Surgery, School of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences, São Paulo State University (FCAV/UNESP), Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil
| | - Peter D Eckersall
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
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16
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Paixão MG, Abreu LR, Richert R, Ruegg PL. Milk composition and health status from mammary gland quarters adjacent to glands affected with naturally occurring clinical mastitis. J Dairy Sci 2017. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2017-12547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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17
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Aleena J, Pragna P, Archana P, Sejian V, Bagath M, Krishnan G, Manimaran A, Beena V, Kurien E, Varma G, Bhatta R. Significance of Metabolic Response in Livestock for Adapting to
Heat Stress Challenges. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.3923/ajas.2016.224.234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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18
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Calvo-Lorenzo MS, Hulbert LE, Fowler AL, Louie A, Gershwin LJ, Pinkerton KE, Ballou MA, Klasing KC, Mitloehner FM. Wooden hutch space allowance influences male Holstein calf health, performance, daily lying time, and respiratory immunity. J Dairy Sci 2016; 99:4678-4692. [PMID: 27016829 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2016-10888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2016] [Accepted: 02/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Dairy calves in the western United States are commonly raised individually in wooden hutches with a space allowance of 1.23m(2)/calf. Recent legislative initiatives in California and across the United States were passed regarding concern over space allowance for farm animals. The objective of this study was to determine if rearing male Holstein calves in wooden hutches modified to increase space allowance would influence measures of performance, lying time per day, health, and respiratory immunocompetence. At 4d of age, 60 calves were randomly assigned to 1 of 3housing treatments: (1) conventional housing (CONV; 1.23m(2)/calf), (2) 1.5 × CONV (MOD; 1.85m(2)/calf), or (3) 3 × CONV (MAX; 3.71m(2)/calf). Intakes of milk and solid feed were recorded daily and body weight was measured at 0, 3, 6, 10, and 12 wk of age. For the first 3 wk of the trial, calves were scored daily for fecal consistency, hydration, and hide cleanliness. In addition, calves were scored for respiratory health (i.e., nasal and eye discharge, ear position) until 7 wk of age. The total lying duration per day was recorded using data loggers at 3, 6, and 10 wk of age. Eight clinically healthy calves from each treatment were sensitized with subcutaneous ovalbumin (OVA) and then challenged with aerosolized OVA to assess calf respiratory immunity at 11 wk of age. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) was collected 4d after the OVA challenge and analyzed for leukocyte differentials and OVA-specific IgG, IgG1, IgA, and IgE. Calf average daily gain and body weight were positively associated with space allowance at approximately 3 wk before weaning and throughout postweaning, respectively. A greater space allowance decreased lying time after 46d. Space allowance did not influence fecal consistency, but there was a tendency for MAX calves to take 1d longer to recover from loose feces than MOD calves. The MAX calves had the fewest (%) observations with feces on their body compared with CONV or MOD. At 3 wk of age, peripheral eosinophil concentrations decreased with increased space allowance. However, observations (%) of eye discharge increased with greater space allowance. Among calves challenged with OVA, MOD calves had the least BALF OVA-IgE, and the percent of BALF eosinophils decreased with increased space allowance. Increased space allowance for calves raised in wooden hutches may improve some measures of calf performance, health, and respiratory immunocompetence.
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Affiliation(s)
- M S Calvo-Lorenzo
- Department of Animal Science, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Center for Health and the Environment, University of California, Davis 95616
| | - L E Hulbert
- Department of Animal Science, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Center for Health and the Environment, University of California, Davis 95616
| | - A L Fowler
- Department of Animal Science, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Center for Health and the Environment, University of California, Davis 95616
| | - A Louie
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Center for Health and the Environment, University of California, Davis 95616
| | - L J Gershwin
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Center for Health and the Environment, University of California, Davis 95616
| | - K E Pinkerton
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Cell Biology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Center for Health and the Environment, University of California, Davis 95616
| | - M A Ballou
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock 79409
| | - K C Klasing
- Department of Animal Science, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Center for Health and the Environment, University of California, Davis 95616
| | - F M Mitloehner
- Department of Animal Science, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Center for Health and the Environment, University of California, Davis 95616.
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19
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Min L, Zheng N, Zhao S, Cheng J, Yang Y, Zhang Y, Yang H, Wang J. Long-term heat stress induces the inflammatory response in dairy cows revealed by plasma proteome analysis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2016; 471:296-302. [PMID: 26851364 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2016.01.185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2016] [Accepted: 01/31/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
In this work we employed a comparative proteomic approach to evaluate seasonal heat stress and investigate proteomic alterations in plasma of dairy cows. Twelve lactating Holstein dairy cows were used and the treatments were: heat stress (n = 6) in hot summer (at the beginning of the moderate heat stress) and no heat stress (n = 6) in spring natural ambient environment, respectively. Subsequently, heat stress treatment lasted 23 days (at the end of the moderate heat stress) to investigate the alterations of plasma proteins, which might be employed as long-term moderate heat stress response in dairy cows. Changes in plasma proteins were analyzed by two-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE) combined with mass spectrometry. Analysis of the properties of the identified proteins revealed that the alterations of plasma proteins were related to inflammation in long-term moderate heat stress. Furthermore, the increase in plasma tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) directly demonstrated that long-term moderate heat stress caused an inflammatory response in dairy cows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Min
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Nan Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Shengguo Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Jianbo Cheng
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei 230036, PR China
| | - Yongxin Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Yangdong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Hongjian Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Jiaqi Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, PR China.
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20
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Nyman AK, Emanuelson U, Waller K. Diagnostic test performance of somatic cell count, lactate dehydrogenase, and N-acetyl-β-d-glucosaminidase for detecting dairy cows with intramammary infection. J Dairy Sci 2016; 99:1440-1448. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2015-9808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2015] [Accepted: 09/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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21
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Manimaran A, Kumaresan A, Jeyakumar S, Mohanty TK, Sejian V, Kumar N, Sreela L, Prakash MA, Mooventhan P, Anantharaj A, Das DN. Potential of acute phase proteins as predictor of postpartum uterine infections during transition period and its regulatory mechanism in dairy cattle. Vet World 2016; 9:91-100. [PMID: 27051191 PMCID: PMC4819357 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2016.91-100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2015] [Revised: 12/04/2015] [Accepted: 12/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Among the various systemic reactions against infection or injury, the acute phase response is the cascade of reaction and mostly coordinated by cytokines-mediated acute phase proteins (APPs) production. Since APPs are sensitive innate immune molecules, they are useful for early detection of inflammation in bovines and believed to be better discriminators than routine hematological parameters. Therefore, the possibility of using APPs as a diagnostic and prognostic marker of inflammation in major bovine health disorders including postpartum uterine infection has been explored by many workers. In this review, we discussed specifically importance of postpartum uterine infection, the role of energy balance in uterine infections and potential of APPs as a predictor of postpartum uterine infections during the transition period and its regulatory mechanism in dairy cattle.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Manimaran
- Southern Regional Station, ICAR - National Dairy Research Institute, Adugodi, Bengaluru - 560 030, Karnataka, India
| | - A Kumaresan
- Theriogenology Laboratory, ICAR - National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal-132 001, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - S Jeyakumar
- Southern Regional Station, ICAR - National Dairy Research Institute, Adugodi, Bengaluru - 560 030, Karnataka, India
| | - T K Mohanty
- Theriogenology Laboratory, ICAR - National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal-132 001, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - V Sejian
- Southern Regional Station, ICAR - National Dairy Research Institute, Adugodi, Bengaluru - 560 030, Karnataka, India
| | - Narender Kumar
- Southern Regional Station, ICAR - National Dairy Research Institute, Adugodi, Bengaluru - 560 030, Karnataka, India
| | - L Sreela
- ICAR - National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal - 132 001, Haryana, India
| | - M Arul Prakash
- ICAR - National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal - 132 001, Haryana, India
| | - P Mooventhan
- ICAR - National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal - 132 001, Haryana, India
| | - A Anantharaj
- Southern Regional Station, ICAR - National Dairy Research Institute, Adugodi, Bengaluru - 560 030, Karnataka, India
| | - D N Das
- Southern Regional Station, ICAR - National Dairy Research Institute, Adugodi, Bengaluru - 560 030, Karnataka, India
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22
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Zhao Y, Zhou M, Gao Y, Liu H, Yang W, Yue J, Chen D. Shifted T Helper Cell Polarization in a Murine Staphylococcus aureus Mastitis Model. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0134797. [PMID: 26230498 PMCID: PMC4521801 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0134797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2015] [Accepted: 07/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mastitis, one of the most costly diseases in dairy ruminants, is an inflammation of the mammary gland caused by pathogenic infection. The mechanisms of adaptive immunity against pathogens in mastitis have not been fully elucidated. To investigate T helper cell-mediated adaptive immune responses, we established a mastitis model by challenge with an inoculum of 4 × 106 colony-forming units of Staphylococcus aureus in the mammary gland of lactating mice, followed by quantification of bacterial burden and histological analysis. The development of mastitis was accompanied by a significant increase in both Th17 and Th1 cells in the mammary gland. Moreover, the relative expression of genes encoding cytokines and transcription factors involved in the differentiation and function of these T helper cells, including Il17, Rorc, Tgfb, Il1b, Il23, Ifng, Tbx21, and Il12, was greatly elevated in the infected mammary gland. IL-17 is essential for neutrophil recruitment to infected mammary gland via CXC chemokines, whereas the excessive IL-17 production contributes to tissue damage in mastitis. In addition, a shift in T helper cell polarization toward Th2 and Treg cells was observed 5 days post-infection, and the mRNA expression of the anti-inflammatory cytokine Il10 was markedly increased at day 7 post-infection. These results indicate that immune clearance of Staphylococcus aureus in mastitis is facilitated by the enrichment of Th17, Th1 and Th2 cells in the mammary gland mediated by pro-inflammatory cytokine production, which is tightly regulated by Treg cells and the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanqing Zhao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi Province, People’s Republic of China
| | - Ming Zhou
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi Province, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yang Gao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi Province, People’s Republic of China
| | - Heyuan Liu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi Province, People’s Republic of China
| | - Wenyu Yang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi Province, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jinhua Yue
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi Province, People’s Republic of China
| | - Dekun Chen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi Province, People’s Republic of China
- * E-mail:
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23
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Fuenzalida M, Fricke P, Ruegg P. The association between occurrence and severity of subclinical and clinical mastitis on pregnancies per artificial insemination at first service of Holstein cows. J Dairy Sci 2015; 98:3791-805. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2014-8997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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24
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Benjamin A, Green B, Hayden L, Barlow J, Kerr D. Cow-to-cow variation in fibroblast response to a toll-like receptor 2/6 agonist and its relation to mastitis caused by intramammary challenge with Staphylococcus aureus. J Dairy Sci 2015; 98:1836-50. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2014-9075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2014] [Accepted: 12/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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25
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Nyman AK, Persson Waller K, Bennedsgaard T, Larsen T, Emanuelson U. Associations of udder-health indicators with cow factors and with intramammary infection in dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 2014; 97:5459-73. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2013-7885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2013] [Accepted: 05/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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26
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Tiantong A, Peng HY, Chen SE, Piamya P, Liu WB, Chen MT, Yu C, Nagahata H, Chang CJ. Intramammary infusion of anEnterococcus faecium SF68 preparation promoted the involution of drying off Holstein cows partly related to neutrophil-associated matrix metalloproteinase 9. Anim Sci J 2014; 86:111-9. [DOI: 10.1111/asj.12243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2013] [Accepted: 03/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Attapol Tiantong
- Department of Animal Science; National Chung Hsing University; Taichung Taiwan
| | - Hsing-Yi Peng
- Department of Animal Science; National Chung Hsing University; Taichung Taiwan
| | - Shuen-Ei Chen
- Department of Animal Science; National Chung Hsing University; Taichung Taiwan
| | - Piya Piamya
- Department of Animal Science; National Chung Hsing University; Taichung Taiwan
| | - Wen-Bor Liu
- Department of Animal Science; National Chung Hsing University; Taichung Taiwan
| | - Ming-Tsao Chen
- Department of Animal Science; National Chung Hsing University; Taichung Taiwan
| | - Chi Yu
- Department of Animal Science; National Pingtung University of Science and Technology; Pingtung Taiwan
| | - Hajime Nagahata
- Department of Animal Health; School of Veterinary Medicine; Rakuno Gakuen University; Ebetsu Japan
| | - Chai-Ju Chang
- Department of Animal Science; National Chung Hsing University; Taichung Taiwan
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27
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Kalmus P, Simojoki H, Pyörälä S, Taponen S, Holopainen J, Orro T. Milk haptoglobin, milk amyloid A, and N-acetyl-β-d-glucosaminidase activity in bovines with naturally occurring clinical mastitis diagnosed with a quantitative PCR test. J Dairy Sci 2013; 96:3662-70. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2012-6177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2012] [Accepted: 02/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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28
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Comparative transcriptome analyses reveal conserved and distinct mechanisms in ovine and bovine lactation. Funct Integr Genomics 2013; 13:115-31. [DOI: 10.1007/s10142-012-0307-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2012] [Revised: 11/19/2012] [Accepted: 12/26/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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29
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Concentration of serum amyloid A and ceruloplasmin activity in milk from cows with subclinical mastitis caused by different pathogens. Pol J Vet Sci 2012; 15:291-6. [PMID: 22844707 DOI: 10.2478/v10181-011-0149-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to determine the concentration of serum amyloid A (SAA) and the activity of ceruloplasmin (Cp) in milk from cows with subclinical mastitis caused by different pathogens. Eighty-four milk samples from cows with subclinical mastitis and fourteen milk samples from healthy cows were examined. SAA concentration was determined using the commercial ELISA kit (Tridelta Development Ltd., Greystones, Wicklow, Ireland). Cp activity was assessed spectrophotometrically, using the Rice method. The results reveal that the concentration of SAA (with exception of CNS) and activity of Cp in cow milk can be regarded as markers of subclinical mastitis, irrespective of the microorganism inducing the disease. In conclusion, measurement of SAA and Cp in milk samples could be a useful method in diagnosing subclinical mastitis in cows, but the method should be adapted for field use.
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30
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The innate immune response of the bovine mammary gland to bacterial infection. Vet J 2012; 192:148-52. [PMID: 22498784 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2011.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2010] [Revised: 09/16/2011] [Accepted: 09/21/2011] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Intra-mammary (IM) bacterial infection in cattle can result in clinical outcomes that range from being acute and life-threatening to those that are chronic and sub-clinical. The typical bacteria involved in IM bacterial infections activate the mammary immune system in different ways which can influence the severity of the outcome. A clear understanding of the mechanisms that activate and regulate this response is central to the development of effective preventative and treatment regimes. This review focuses on the different immune responses of the bovine mammary gland to common mastitis-causing pathogens. There is special emphasis on comparing the responses to Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus infections, as these are typically associated, respectively, with acute/severe and chronic/sub-clinical forms of the disease.
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31
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Heravi Moussavi A, Mesgaran MD, Gilbert RO. Effect of mastitis during the first lactation on production and reproduction performance of Holstein cows. Trop Anim Health Prod 2012; 44:1567-73. [PMID: 22395793 DOI: 10.1007/s11250-012-0107-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of postpartum mastitis between first calving and subsequent conception on production and reproduction performance as well as culling of Holstein cows. A data set of 9,183 first lactation cows was used. Results showed that the first cumulative 100 days' milk production and the milk yield standardized to 305 days were affected by the interval from calving to first mastitis (P < 0.05). Cows with one episode of mastitis produced more milk than those with repeated episodes of mastitis (P < 0.01). Increase in the number of mastitis episodes and also decrease in interval between first calving and mastitis increased services per conception (P < 0.001). Mastitis episode and the interval between calving and first mastitis had no apparent impact on the calving to conception interval (P > 0.05). Calving year, calving difficulty score, and cumulative first 60 days milk production had significant impacts on mastitis risk (P < 0.05). The interval from calving to the first incidence of mastitis decreased over the period studied (P < 0.001). Productive life tended to be decreased due to mastitis (P = 0.07). Survival analysis showed a significant difference between the lengths of productive life for cows with different intervals from calving to first mastitis (P < 0.01). The results demonstrated that clinical mastitis between first calving and conception reduced production and reproduction performance with an increase in chance of culling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alireza Heravi Moussavi
- Department of Animal Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, 91775-1163, Khorasan Razavi, Iran.
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32
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Aitken SL, Corl CM, Sordillo LM. Immunopathology of mastitis: insights into disease recognition and resolution. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2011; 16:291-304. [PMID: 21938490 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-011-9230-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2011] [Accepted: 09/01/2011] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Mastitis is an inflammation of the mammary gland commonly caused by bacterial infection. The inflammatory process is a normal and necessary immunological response to invading pathogens. The purpose of host inflammatory responses is to eliminate the source of tissue injury, restore immune homeostasis, and return tissues to normal function. The inflammatory cascade results not only in the escalation of local antimicrobial factors, but also in the increased movement of leukocytes and plasma components from the blood that may cause damage to host tissues. A precarious balance between pro-inflammatory and pro-resolving mechanisms is needed to ensure optimal bacterial clearance and the prompt return to immune homeostasis. Therefore, inflammatory responses must be tightly regulated to avoid bystander damage to the milk synthesizing tissues of the mammary gland. The defense mechanisms of the mammary gland function optimally when invading bacteria are recognized promptly, the initial inflammatory response is adequate to rapidly eliminate the infection, and the mammary gland is returned to normal function quickly without any noticeable clinical symptoms. Suboptimal or dysfunctional mammary gland defenses, however, may contribute to the development of severe acute inflammation or chronic mastitis that adversely affects the quantity and quality of milk. This review will summarize critical mammary gland defense mechanisms that are necessary for immune surveillance and the rapid elimination of mastitis-causing organisms. Situations in which diminished efficiency of innate or adaptive mammary gland immune responses may contribute to disease pathogenesis will also be discussed. A better understanding of the complex interactions between mammary gland defenses and mastitis-causing pathogens should prove useful for the future control of intramammary infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacey L Aitken
- G300 Veterinary Medical Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
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33
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Huzzey J, Nydam D, Grant R, Overton T. Associations of prepartum plasma cortisol, haptoglobin, fecal cortisol metabolites, and nonesterified fatty acids with postpartum health status in Holstein dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 2011; 94:5878-89. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2010-3391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2010] [Accepted: 08/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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34
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Abstract
Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) is recognized as a cytokine because of its involvement in inflammation-mediated biological defense functions. Although TNF-α is primarily produced by macrophages, it is also produced by other cells, including lymphocytes, Kupffer cells, natural killer cells and adipocytes. While TNF-α has diverse immune system functions, including antitumor activity, antimicrobial activity and mediation of inflammation, it also regulates a number of physiological functions, including appetite, fever, energy metabolism and endocrine activity. Factors such as viruses, parasites, other cytokines, and endotoxins induce TNF-α production. In combination with other cytokines, TNF-α plays a clinically important role in cattle by mediating immune inflammatory responses such as mastitis and endotoxic shock. It has been reported that cytokines such as TNF-α are involved in metabolic disease such as acidosis. On the other hand, several data suggest that lactoferrin (LF) acts to prevent the release of a number of inflammatory mediators from various activated cells, and further suggest that the prophylactic effect of LF involves inhibition of cytokine production, including TNF-α, that are principal mediators of the inflammatory response leading to death from toxic shock. This review discusses the role of TNF-α in pathological conditions in cattle, including infections and metabolic diseases caused by perturbation of metabolism and endocrine functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiro Kushibiki
- National Institute of Livestock and Grassland Science, Tsukuba, Japan.
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35
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Pyörälä S, Hovinen M, Simojoki H, Fitzpatrick J, Eckersall PD, Orro T. Acute phase proteins in milk in naturally acquired bovine mastitis caused by different pathogens. Vet Rec 2011; 168:535. [DOI: 10.1136/vr.d1120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S. Pyörälä
- Department of Production Animal Medicine; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; University of Helsinki; Paroninkuja 20 04920 Saarentaus Finland
| | - M. Hovinen
- Department of Production Animal Medicine; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; University of Helsinki; Paroninkuja 20 04920 Saarentaus Finland
| | - H. Simojoki
- Department of Production Animal Medicine; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; University of Helsinki; Paroninkuja 20 04920 Saarentaus Finland
| | - J. Fitzpatrick
- Moredun Research Institute; Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan Penicuik Midlothian EH2 0PZ
| | - P. D. Eckersall
- Division of Animal Production and Public Health; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; University of Glasgow; Bearsden Road Glasgow G61 1QH
| | - T. Orro
- Department of Animal Health and Environment; Institute of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences; Estonian University of Life Sciences; Kreutzwaldi 62 51014 Tartu Estonia
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36
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The effect of a single prolonged milking interval on inflammatory parameters, milk composition and yield in dairy cows. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2011; 140:110-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2010.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2010] [Revised: 11/09/2010] [Accepted: 11/25/2010] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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