Farm-level risk factors and treatment protocols for lameness in New Zealand dairy cattle

AIMS

To identify farm-level risk factors for dairy cow lameness, and to describe lameness treatment protocols used on New Zealand dairy farms.

METHODS

One hundred and nineteen farms from eight veterinary clinics within the major dairying regions of New Zealand were randomly enrolled into a cross-sectional lameness prevalence study. Each farmer completed a questionnaire on lameness risk factors and lameness treatment and management. Trained observers lameness scored cattle on two occasions, between October-December (spring, coinciding with peak lactation for most farms) and between January-March (summer, late lactation for most farms). A four-point (0-3) scoring system was used to assess lameness, with animals with a lameness score (LS) ≥2 defined as lame. At each visit, all lactating animals were scored including animals that had previously been identified lame by the farmer. Associations between the farmer-reported risk factors and lameness were determined using mixed logistic regression models in a Bayesian framework, with farm and score event as random effects.

RESULTS

A lameness prevalence of 3.5% (2,113/59,631) was reported at the first LS event, and 3.3% (1,861/55,929) at the second LS event. There was a median prevalence of 2.8% (min 0, max 17.0%) from the 119 farms. Most farmers (90/117; 77%) relied on informal identification by farm staff to identify lame animals. On 65% (75/116) of farms, there was no external provider of lame cow treatments, with the farmer carrying out all lame cow treatments. Most farmers had no formal training (69/112; 62%). Animals from farms that used concrete stand-off pads during periods of inclement weather had 1.45 times the odds of lameness compared to animals on farms that did not use concrete stand-off pads (95% equal-tailed credible interval 1.07-1.88). Animals from farms that reported peak lameness incidence from January to June or all year-round, had 0.64 times odds of lameness compared to animals from farms that reported peak lameness incidence from July to December (95% equal-tailed credible interval 0.47-0.88).

CONCLUSIONS

Lameness prevalence was low amongst the enrolled farms. Use of concrete stand-off pads and timing of peak lameness incidence were associated with odds of lameness.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Veterinarians should be encouraging farmers to have formal lameness identification protocols and lameness management plans in place. There is ample opportunity to provide training to farmers for lame cow treatment. Management of cows on stand-off pads should consider the likely impact on lameness.

Invited review: Prevalence, risk factors, treatment, and barriers to best practice adoption for lameness and injuries in dairy cattle-A narrative review

Lameness and leg injuries are both painful and prevalent across the dairy industry, and are a major welfare concern. There has been a considerable amount of research focused on investigating the risk factors associated with lameness and injuries and how they might be prevented and treated. The objectives of this narrative review were to summarize herd-level prevalence estimates, risk factors, strategies for prevention, control, and treatment of these conditions, and the barriers to best practice adoption for lameness and injuries on dairy farms. There is a relatively high within-herd prevalence of lameness on dairy farms globally, with a recent systematic review estimating the mean prevalence at 22.8%. Similarly, there is a relatively high prevalence of hock injuries, with within-herd estimates ranging from 12% to 81% of cows affected. Knee and neck injuries have been reported to be less common, with 6% to 43% and 1% to 33%, respectively. Numerous risk factors have been associated with the incidence of lameness, notably housing (e.g., access to pasture, bedding depth, bedding type, flooring type, stall design), management (e.g., stall cleanliness, frequency of trimming, holding times, stocking density), and cow-level (e.g., body condition, parity, injured hocks) factors. Risk factors associated with hock injuries can be similarly classified into housing (e.g., bedding type and depth, outdoor access, parlor type, stall design), management (e.g., bedding depth, cleanliness), and cow (e.g., parity, days in milk, lameness) factors. Key preventative approaches for lameness include routine preventative and corrective hoof trimming, improving hoof cushioning and traction through access to pasture or adding rubber flooring, deep-bedded stalls, sand bedding, ensuring appropriate stocking densities, reduced holding times, and the frequent use of routine footbaths. Very little research has been conducted on hock, knee, and neck injury prevention and recovery. Numerous researchers have concluded that both extrinsic (e.g., time, money, space) and intrinsic (e.g., farmer attitude, perception, priorities, and mindset) barriers exist to addressing lameness and injuries on dairy farms. There are many diverse stakeholders in lameness and injury management including the farmer, farm staff, veterinarian, hoof trimmer, nutritionist, and other advisors. Addressing dairy cattle lameness and injuries must, therefore, consider the people involved, as it is these people who are influencing and implementing on-farm decisions related to lameness prevention, treatment, and control.

Assessing lameness prevalence and associated risk factors in crossbred dairy cows across diverse management environments

BACKGROUND

A thorough understanding of lameness prevalence is essential for evaluating the impact of this condition on the dairy industry and assessing the effectiveness of preventive strategies designed to minimize its occurrence. Therefore, this cross-sectional study aimed to ascertain the prevalence of lameness and identify potential risk factors associated with lameness in Holstein Friesian crossbred cows across both commercial and smallholder dairy production systems in Bengaluru Rural District of Karnataka, India.

METHODS

The research encompassed six commercial dairy farms and 139 smallholder dairy farms, involving a total of 617 Holstein Friesian crossbred cattle. On-site surveys were conducted at the farms, employing a meticulously designed questionnaire. Lameness in dairy cattle was assessed subjectively using a locomotion scoring system. Both bivariate and binary logistic regression models were employed for risk assessment, while principal components analysis (PCA) was conducted to address the high dimensionality of the data and capture the underlying structure of the explanatory variables.

RESULTS

The overall lameness prevalence of 21.9% in commercial dairy farms and 4.6% in smallholder dairy farms. Various factors such as age, body weight, parity, body condition score (BCS), floor type, hock and knee injuries, animal hygiene, provision of hoof trimming, and the presence of hoof lesions were found to be significantly associated with lameness. Binary logistic regression analysis indicated that the odds of lameness in crossbred cows increased with higher parity, decreased BCS, presence of hard flooring, poor animal hygiene, and the existence of hoof lesions. These factors were identified as potential risk factors for lameness in dairy cows. Principal component analysis unveiled five components explaining 71.32% of the total variance in commercial farms and 61.21% in smallholder dairy farms. The extracted components demonstrated higher loadings of housing and management factors (such as hoof trimming and provision of footbath) and animal-level factors (including parity, age, and BCS) in relation to lameness in dairy cows.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest that principal component analysis effectively reduces the dimensionality of risk factors. Addressing these identified risk factors for lameness is crucial for the strategic management of lameness in dairy cows. Future research in India should investigate the effectiveness of management interventions targeted at the identified risk factors in preventing lameness in dairy cattle across diverse environments.

Global losses due to dairy cattle diseases: A comorbidity-adjusted economic analysis

An economic simulation was carried out over 183 milk-producing countries to estimate the global economic impacts of 12 dairy cattle diseases and health conditions: mastitis (subclinical and clinical), lameness, paratuberculosis (Johne's disease), displaced abomasum, dystocia, metritis, milk fever, ovarian cysts, retained placenta, and ketosis (subclinical and clinical). Estimates of disease impacts on milk yield, fertility, and culling were collected from the literature, standardized, meta-analyzed using a variety of methods ranging from simple averaging to random-effects models, and adjusted for comorbidities to prevent overestimation. These comorbidity-adjusted disease impacts were then combined with a set of country-level lactational incidence and/or prevalence estimates, herd characteristics, and price estimates within a series of Monte Carlo simulations that estimated and valued the economic losses due to these diseases. It was estimated that total annual global losses are USD 65 billion (B). Subclinical ketosis, clinical mastitis, and subclinical mastitis were the costliest diseases modeled, resulting in mean annual global losses of approximately USD 18B, USD 13B, and USD 9B, respectively. Estimated global annual losses due to clinical ketosis, displaced abomasum, dystocia, lameness, metritis, milk fever, ovarian cysts, paratuberculosis, and retained placenta were estimated to be USD 0.2B, 0.6B, 0.6B, 6B, 5B, 0.6B, 4B, 4B, and 3B, respectively. Without adjustment for comorbidities, when statistical associations between diseases were disregarded, mean aggregate global losses would have been overestimated by 45%. Although annual losses were greatest in India (USD 12B), the USA (USD 8B), and China (USD 5B), depending on the measure of losses used (losses as a percent of GDP, losses per capita, losses as a percent of gross milk revenue), the relative economic burden of these dairy cattle diseases across countries varied markedly.

Prevalence of lameness on pasture-based New Zealand dairy farms: An observational study

To understand the current impact of lameness on a system, it is important to define lameness prevalence across a range of dairy farms in that system. Prevalence estimates from dairy systems where cows are permanently managed at pasture are uncommon, although the limited data suggest that they have a lower lameness prevalence than housed cattle. One hundred and 20 farms from eight of the major dairying regions of New Zealand were randomly enrolled into a cross-sectional lameness prevalence study. On each of the farms, trained observers lameness scored cattle on two occasions, between October-December (spring, coinciding with peak lactation for most farms) and between January-March (summer, late lactation for most farms). At each visit, all lactating animals were scored using a four-point 0-3 scoring system, and included animals that had previously been identified as lame by the farmer. Animals with a lameness score (LS) ≥2 were defined as lame. Mixed logistic regression models assessed the interaction between region and season and island and season, respectively, and differences between the lameness prevalence within farm across the two seasons reported descriptively. A total of 116,317 locomotion scores over two events were conducted across the 120 farms. At the spring scoring event, 2128/60,007 (3.5 %) cows had a LS ≥2 and 1868/56,310 (3.3 %) cows had a LS ≥ 2 at the summer scoring event. At the farm level, across both scoring events, median lameness prevalence was 2.8 (interquartile range 1.5 - 4.5) %, with a range of 0.0-17.0 %. The median farm-level prevalence of LS = 3 was 0.5 % with a range of 0-4.6 %. The effect of timing of scoring was modified by region (p < 0.001), and island (p = 0.006) and at the individual farm level, differences between spring and summer farm level lameness prevalence were generally small (interquartile range: -1.8 to 1.0 %) but potentially large on individual farms (range from -12.3 % to 7.6 %). The median farm-level lameness prevalence estimate of 2.8 % across a random representative sample of New Zealand dairy farms give confidence that the overall prevalence of cattle lameness on New Zealand dairy farms is low. This adds to the growing evidence that pasture is a good management system with respect to hoof health. The evidence of strong seasonality of lameness was lacking. Instead of using lameness scoring to identify farms with large lameness problems, lameness scoring should be encouraged to farmers as a tool to improve the identification of lame animals.

Livestock health and disease economics: a scoping review of selected literature

Animal diseases in production and subsistence environments have the potential to negatively affect consumers, producers, and economies as a whole. A growing global demand for animal sourced food requires safe and efficient production systems. Understanding the burden of animal disease and the distribution of burden throughout a value chain informs policy that promotes safe consumption and efficient markets, as well as providing more effective pathways for investment. This paper surveys existing knowledge on the burden of animal disease across economic categories of production, prevention and treatment, animal welfare, and trade and regulation. Our scoping review covers 192 papers across peer-reviewed journals and reports published by organizations. We find there exists a gap in knowledge in evaluating what the global burdens of animal diseases are and how these burdens are distributed in value chains. We also point to a need for creating an analytical framework based on established methods that guides future evaluation of animal disease burden, which will provide improved access to information on animal health impacts.

Hock Lesions in Dairy Cows in Cubicle Housing Systems in Germany: Prevalence and Risk Factors

Hock lesions in dairy cows are an important indicator of animal welfare, in particular housing conditions. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of hock lesions in dairy cows kept in cubicle housing systems in three structurally different regions of Germany and to derive recommendations from risk factor analyses. Lactating and dry cows kept in cubicle housing systems were assessed for hock lesions (north: 206 farms with 20,792 cows; south: 156 farms with 8050 cows; east: 192 farms with 37,839 cows). Risk factor analyses were conducted using multi-factorial logistic regression models. The median prevalence of hock lesions (hairless patches, wounds, and/or swelling) at farm level was 79.8% (SD: 25.0; north), 66.2% (SD: 31.0; south), and 78.5% (SD: 26.3; east). The mean prevalence of severe hock lesions (wounds and/or swelling) at farm level was 12.5% (SD: 11.3; north), 8.0% (SD: 13.5; south), and 14.4% (SD: 17.9; east). Cows kept in pens with rubber mats or mattresses (with or without a small amount of litter) had a particularly higher chance of hock lesions compared with cows kept in pens with deep-bedded cubicles (OR: north: 3.1 [2.3-4.2]; south: 8.7 [5.9-13.0], east: 2.0 [1.7-2.4]). The study showed that hock lesions are a widespread problem on German dairy farms with cubicle housing systems. Deep-bedded cubicles are likely to reduce hock lesions and increase cows' comfort.

Prevalence of lameness in dairy cows: A literature review

Lameness in dairy cows has major negative impacts on animal welfare and production economy. While previous studies have evaluated the prevalence of lameness in single countries, the present literature review is the first overview of the prevalence of lameness in dairy cows globally. This literature review identified 53 studies reporting prevalence of lameness among representative samples of dairy cows and fulfilling a number of specified inclusion criteria (e.g., at least 10 herds and 200 cows, and locomotion scoring by trained observers). A total of 414,950 cows from 3945 herds were included in these 53 studies, which spanned a 30-year period (1989-2020) and included herds from six continents, with the majority from Europe and North America. Across the studies, the mean prevalence of lameness (typically defined as score 3-5 on a 1-5 scale) was 22.8% with a median of 22.0% and a range between studies from 5.1% to 45%, and a within herd range from 0% to 88%. The mean prevalence of severely lame cows (typically defined as score 4-5 on a 1-5 scale) was 7.0% with a median of 6.5% and a range between studies from 1.8% to 21.2%, and a within herd range from 0% to 65%. Over time, it appears that the prevalence of lameness has changed very little. Several different locomotion scoring systems and definitions of (severe) lameness were used across the 53 studies, and this may have affected the reported lameness prevalence. Sampling of herds and cows, inclusion criteria and representativeness also differed between studies. This review offers recommendations for the future capture of information on lameness in dairy cows and identifies potential knowledge gaps.

Impact of recycled manure solids bedding on hygiene and odds of hock lesions in dairy cows

The use of recycled manure solids (RMS) as bedding for dairy cows has become more popular over the last decade. Once producers own the RMS producing equipment, they are not restricted in the amount of bedding they can use in stalls, due to its large availability and low production costs. Thus, they are usually able to provide a soft lying area for their cows. Nevertheless, the potential positive impact of RMS on cows' hygiene and odds of hock lesions is not clearly demonstrated. Objectives of this research were, therefore, to compare RMS-bedded cows' hygiene level and odds of hock lesions to straw-bedded cows (comparative group). To achieve this, an observational cross-sectional study was conducted in 27 RMS- and 61 straw-bedded herds. During the farm visit, 30 cows per herd were scored for hygiene of three body regions (udder, lower legs and flank/upper legs) using a score ranging from 1 to 4 (1 being the cleanest and 4 the dirtiest). In addition, both hocks were scored (0 to 3) to evaluate the presence of lesions (0 when there was no lesion and 3 when a swelling protrusion > 2.5 cm was present). Continuation-ratio models were used to compute the odds of having a given score to the odds of having a lower score. Recycled manure solids usage was associated with lower odds of having an udder hygiene score ≥3 [odds ratio (OR): 0.43; 95% CI: 0.20, 0.95] and of having a score of 4 (OR: 0.29; 95% CI: 0.09, 0.93). It was also associated, compared to straw, with cleaner lower legs. We observed lower odds of having a score ≥2 (OR: 0.45; 95% CI: 0.21, 0.98), ≥3 (OR: 0.16; 95% CI: 0.04, 0.66), or a score of 4 (OR: 0.07; 95% CI: 0.01, 0.40) in RMS-bedded herds. No statistically significant association could be highlighted between RMS usage and flank/upper legs hygiene. Furthermore, we did not observe any statistically significant associations between bedding type (RMS vs. straw) and odds of hock lesions. In conclusion, cows bedded with RMS had generally cleaner udders and cleaner lower legs than straw-bedded ones. No association was found between bedding type and odds of hock lesions.

Decision tree analysis to evaluate risks associated with lameness on dairy farms with automated milking systems

Lameness is an endemic disorder causing health problems and production losses in the dairy cow industry. The objective of this study was to identify cow and farm-level factors associated with lameness on Automatic Milking System (AMS) farms, using decision tree analysis to assign probabilities to each input. AMS farms across Canada and Michigan were evaluated to identify the most substantial farm (i.e., stall design, bedding) and cow-level (i.e., BCS, leg injuries) factors associated with prevalence of lameness. To assess lameness, videos of cows were used, and cows with a head bob or noticeable limp were categorized as lame. A decision tree classification model used 1378 data points from 39 pens across 36 farms to predict the value of the target class through “tree function” in MATLAB. The primary classifier was identified as type of stall base, dividing the data set into 3 categories: 1) rubber, sand, or geotextile mat flooring, 2) concrete base, and 3) other types of stall base. Within the first category (class membership (CM) = 976), bedding quantity was the secondary classifier, which was divided by cows standing on ≥2 cm (CM=456) or &lt;2 cm (CM=520) of bedding. Bedding quantity was divided into the third most important classifier of BCS, and cow fit stall width. Cows with BCS of 3.25 to 4.5 (CM=307) were defined as non-lame with an estimated probability (EP) of 0.59, while cows with BCS of 2 to 2.5 (CM=213) were further split by hock lesion incidence. Cows without lesions were defined non-lame (EP=0.93) and cows with lesions were defined lame (EP=0.07). Cows that fit stall width were defined as non-lame (EP=0.66) and cows that did not fit were further divided by the width of the feed alley. Farms with ≥430 cm feed alley were defined as non-lame (EP=0.89), whereas farms with &lt;430 cm feed alley were defined as lame (EP=0.11). Through implementing a novel multifactorial approach of data analysis, we were able to highlight the critical points that can be focused on to enhance farm-level housing and management practices or mitigate or monitor cow-level issues to reduce incidence and severity of lameness in AMS farms.

Opportunities to monitor animal welfare using the five freedoms with precision livestock management on rangelands

Advances in technology have led to precision livestock management, a developing research field. Precision livestock management has potential to improve sustainable meat production through continuous, real-time tracking which can help livestock managers remotely monitor and enhance animal welfare in extensive rangeland systems. The combination of global positioning systems (GPS) and accessible data transmission gives livestock managers the ability to locate animals in arduous weather, track animal patterns throughout the grazing season, and improve handling practices. Accelerometers fitted to ear tags or collars have the potential to identify behavioral changes through variation in the intensity of movement that can occur during grazing, the onset of disease, parturition or responses to other environmental and management stressors. The ability to remotely detect disease, parturition, or effects of stress, combined with appropriate algorithms and data analysis, can be used to notify livestock managers and expedite response times to bolster animal welfare and productivity. The “Five Freedoms” were developed to help guide the evaluation and impact of management practices on animal welfare. These freedoms and welfare concerns differ between intensive (i.e., feed lot) and extensive (i.e., rangeland) systems. The provisions of the Five Freedoms can be used as a conceptual framework to demonstrate how precision livestock management can be used to improve the welfare of livestock grazing on extensive rangeland systems.

Culling and mortality of dairy cows: why it happens and how it can be mitigated

The United Nations estimates that the global population will total 9.7 billion in 2050. Rapid population growth pose a significant obstacle to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals, particularly eradicating hunger and poverty. In view of the expanding population growth, food production ideally should triple to prevent massive food shortages. Sustainable food and nutrition security is the focal point of the dairy industry. Dairy production plays a pivotal role in addressing and advancing global food and nutrition security. It serves as a major source of protein, calcium, and phosphorus in many families in developing countries with a fast-growing population. Consequently, the dairy industry is expected to grow by approximately 26% in the next 10 years and produce an estimated 1077 million tonnes of milk by 2050. However, the growth and distribution of the dairy industry is limited by many factors such as culling and mortality of dairy cows. Several studies highlight reproduction failures, old age, poor milk yield, diseases (mastitis, lameness, and dystocia), and heat stress as some reasons for culling of dairy cows. Hence, this review highlights the factors influencing culling and mortality in dairy production farms, and discusses mitigating measures to limit culling.

Effects of Housing and Management Factors on Selected Indicators of the Welfare Quality® Protocol in Loose-Housed Dairy Cows

The objective of this study was to examine the effects of housing and management factors on animal welfare indicators in dairy cows using a benchmarking approach. In total, 63 conventional dairy cattle farms with zero-grazing in Northern Germany were assessed using selected animal welfare indicators (body condition score, integument alterations, lameness, milk somatic cell count, and social behaviour) of the Welfare Quality® protocol. Additionally, housing characteristics such as designs of barns, cubicles, and floors were documented during farm visits and farmers were interviewed concerning their common management routines. Farms were categorized into a high welfare or low welfare group by calculating upper and lower tertiles for each of the animal welfare indicators separately. Both groups were compared regarding housing conditions and management practices using univariable and multivariable logistic regressions. Several associations between housing and management factors and animal welfare indicators were demonstrated in univariable analysis (p < 0.20). Significant effects within multivariable logistic regression analysis were determined for lameness (routine use of foot-baths), milk somatic cell count (milking frequency) and social behaviour (cow-to-stall ratio) (p < 0.05). Comparing farms with higher and lower animal welfare status can provide useful information about effective options to improve animal welfare.

Effects of free-choice pasture access on lameness recovery and behavior of lame dairy cattle

Lameness is a common condition in dairy cows. Free-choice access to pasture may benefit lame cows by providing a softer and more comfortable lying and standing surface; however, the effects of this system on lameness have not yet been explored. We evaluated whether a 7-wk period of free-choice pasture access would improve lameness recovery and affect the lying behavior of lame dairy cows. Lactating Holstein cows, all clinically lame upon enrollment and housed inside a freestall barn, were pseudo-randomly allocated to 1 of 2 treatments (balancing for gait score, parity, and previous lameness history): free-choice access to pasture (n = 27; pasture) or indoor housing only (n = 27; indoor). Cows were gait scored weekly by an observer blind to treatment, using a 5-point numerical rating system (NRS 1 = sound, NRS 5 = severely lame), and hoof inspections were performed by professional trimmers at the start and end of the 7-wk period. Lying behavior was assessed using accelerometers. Cows were categorized as either having a sound period (NRS <2 over 2 consecutive weeks) or remaining lame. Cows spent, on average, 14.8 ± 10.0% (mean ± SD) of their total time on pasture, with much of this time spent outside at night. Over the 7-wk period, 42% of cows had at least one sound period (pasture: 55.6%, indoor: 26.9%), but this was more likely for cows with pasture access (odds ratio = 4.1; 95% confidence interval: 1.1-14.6%). Pasture cows also spent more total weeks sound compared with indoor cows (2.0 ± 0.34 vs. 0.81 ± 0.35 wk). Cows with pasture access lay down for less overall time than indoor cows (13.9 ± 0.29 vs. 12.7 ± 0.28 h/d) and spent more time standing on pasture (74%) than when indoors (47%). These results suggest that lame dairy cows will use pasture when provided with free-choice access, primarily at night, and that access to pasture aids in lameness recovery. We encourage future research to investigate longer-term effects on the recovery of hoof lesions and reoccurrence of lameness cases.

Lameness prevalence and management practices on Irish pasture-based dairy farms

Background

Lameness is a painful disease, which negatively impacts dairy cow production and welfare. The aim of this observational study was to determine herd lameness prevalence, describe current lameness management practices and identify the presence of established risk factors for lameness on Irish pasture-based dairy farms. Farms were visited once during grazing (99 farms) and again during housing (85 farms). Lameness scoring was carried out at each visit (AHDB 0–3 scale); cows were classified as lame if they scored two or three. Farm management practices and infrastructure characteristics were evaluated via farmer questionnaires and direct measurements of farm infrastructure.

Results

Median herd-level lameness prevalence was 7.9% (interquartile range = 5.6 – 13.0) during grazing and 9.1% (interquartile range = 4.9 – 12.0) during housing; 10.9% of cows were lame at a single visit and 3.5% were lame at both visits (chronically lame or had a repeat episode of lameness). Fifty-seven percent of farmers were not familiar with lameness scoring and only one farm carried out lameness scoring. Only 22% of farmers kept records of lame cows detected, and 15% had a lameness herd health plan. Twenty-eight percent of farmers waited more than 48 h to treat a lame cow, and 21% waited for more than one cow to be identified as lame before treating. Six percent of farmers carried out routine trimming and 31% regularly footbathed (> 12 times per year). Twelve percent put severely lame cows in a closer paddock and 8% stated that they used pain relief to treat severely lame cows. Over 50% of farms had at least one cow track measurement that was classified as rough or very rough, and cow tracks were commonly narrow for the herd size. On 6% of farms, all cubicle beds were bare concrete (no matting or bedding) and on a further 6% of farms, there was a combination of cubicles with and without matting or bedding. On 56% of farms, all pens contained less than 1.1 cubicles per cow and on 28% of farms, a proportion of pens contained less than 1.1 cubicles per cow.

Conclusions

Overall, this study identified infrastructure and management practices which could be improved upon. The comparatively low lameness prevalence demonstrated, compared to fully housed systems, also highlights the benefits of a pasture-based system for animal welfare; however, there remains scope for improvement.

German Farmers' Awareness of Lameness in Their Dairy Herds

Lameness is one of the most challenging problems in the dairy industry. Control is impeded because farmers often underestimate the number of lame cows. The objectives of this study were to assess German farmers' awareness of lameness in their herds and to determine the associations between farmers' awareness and their management practices, farm characteristics as well as with farmers' education, personality traits and attitudes. As a part of a large cross-sectional study, veterinarians visited farms in three structurally different regions of Germany: north (n = 253), east (n = 252), and south (n = 260). The cows (n = 84,998) were scored for locomotion and farmers were asked to estimate the number of cows that were lame or did not walk soundly. The ratio of farmers' estimated prevalence and the veterinarians' observed prevalence (Farmer's Detection Index; FDI) was calculated. The median lameness prevalence assessed by the veterinarians was 23.1, 39.1, and 23.2%, and the median prevalence of lame cows estimated by the farmers was 9.5, 9.5, and 7.1% in the north, east, and south, respectively. On average, farmers were conscious of only 45.3% (north), 24.0% (east), and 30.0% (south) of their lame cows. Farmers managing their herds according to organic principles had a higher FDI than farmers who managed their herds conventionally. Surprisingly, no significant associations between FDI and factors concerning claw health management could be detected. Therefore, increased awareness did not seem to be necessarily linked to improved management. Moreover, the FDI was not significantly associated with farmers' education or herd size. In the south, more extraverted farmers had a lower FDI. Those farmers who totally agreed with the statement, “I am satisfied with my herd's health,” had a lower FDI than farmers who disagreed or were undecided. Moreover, farmers who disagreed or were undecided with the statement, “It affects me to see a cow in pain” had a higher FDI than those farmers who agreed to the statement. The results indicate that poor awareness of lameness was linked to the farmers' attitude and personality. Therefore, new approaches concerning the consultation regarding lameness control, such as the use of Motivational Interviewing, might be useful in the future.

Identifying cow - level factors and farm characteristics associated with locomotion scores in dairy cows using cumulative link mixed models

Lameness is a tremendous problem in intensively managed dairy herds all over the world. It has been associated with considerable adverse effects on animal welfare and economic viability. The majority of studies have evaluated factors associated with gait disturbance by categorising cows into lame and non-lame. This procedure yet entails a loss of information and precision. In the present study, we extend the binomial response to five categories acknowledging the ordered categorical nature of locomotion assessments, which conserves a higher level of information. A cumulative link mixed modelling approach was used to identify factors associated with increasing locomotion scores. The analysis revealed that a low body condition, elevated somatic cell count, more severe hock lesions, increasing parity, absence of pasture access, and poor udder cleanliness were relevant variables associated with higher locomotion scores. Furthermore, distinct differences in the locomotion scores assigned were identified in regard to breed, observer, and season. Using locomotion scores rather than a dichotomised response variable uncovers more refined relationships between gait disturbances and associated factors. This will help to understand the intricate nature of gait disturbances in dairy cows more deeply.

To meet or not to meet welfare outcome thresholds: a case-control study in dairy cow herds

Recently published thresholds allow classifying dairy cattle herds according to target, caution and alert ranges for welfare outcomes. Such normative thresholds provide one way to transparently assess production practices and are a straightforward communication tool with farmers. In an ordinal response case-control study, we investigated associations of animal, management and resource-related indicators with the risk of exceeding thresholds of prevalence for lameness, claw disorders, integument alterations and leg cleanliness. To this end, we used cumulative logistic regression models on 264 tethered and 392 loose-housed Austrian dairy herds. In tethered herds, the risk indicator average lactation milk yield was positively associated with the probability to exceed thresholds for integument alteration prevalence but negatively regarding leg cleanliness. Associations were also found for operation type regarding integument alterations (lower risk on organic vs conventional farms), for herd size regarding lameness (negative association) and dirty upper hind leg (positive association), and for percentage of fifth or higher parity cows in the herd regarding dirty lower hind leg (positive association). Stall type was identified as risk indicator regarding claw disorders (lower risk of long vs short stands). In loose housing systems, none of the analysed risk indicators was associated with the probability to exceed thresholds for total lameness and claw disorder prevalence. Negative associations with the probability to exceed caution or alert thresholds were identified for lifetime milk yield (dirty upper hind leg), lactation milk yield (dirty upper and lower hind leg), percentage of cows in the herd with a fat-protein-ratio <1 (integument alterations), and percentage of cows in the herd with a fat-protein-ratio >1.5 (dirty upper hind leg). Pasture access showed negative (severe lameness, integument alterations) and herd size positive associations (severe lameness) with the probability to exceed thresholds. Deep litter cubicles compared to raised cubicles with rubber mats showed a lower probability to exceed thresholds (integument alterations, dirty lower hind leg) as well as solid rubber compared to concrete slatted flooring in alleyways (integument alterations). Assessments carried out during the pasture period compared to during winter housing were associated with a lower risk of exceeding thresholds for leg cleanliness measures in both, tethered and loose-housed herds, and for integument alteration prevalence in tethered herds. In conclusion, no principal risk indicator was identified which consistently determined the probability of exceeding predefined thresholds of considered welfare outcomes. Nevertheless, outcome-specific factors show sufficient impact on the categorisation of farms according to prevalence ranges.

Animal Welfare and Parasite Infections in Organic and Conventional Dairy Farms: A Comparative Pilot Study in Central Italy

Simple Summary

European sustainability-oriented policies aim to encourage organic (ORG) farming practices since they are considered to be more resilient than conventional (CONV) ones and to grant higher animal welfare standards. On the other hand, animals farmed organically are considered at higher risk of parasitic infections, since grazing could expose animals to higher parasite load. Considering the contrasting data present in literature, the present work aims to investigate and compare the animal welfare conditions and gastrointestinal distribution in ORG and CONV dairy farms in central Italy. Animals from ORG farms involved in this study presented significantly less skin damages in the rear legs than animals from CONV farms. No significant differences were found for any of the other welfare-related parameters and for parasite prevalence. Results highlight that ORG farming did not have a negative impact on animal welfare and that pasture access, provided in ORG farms, did not negatively impact parasite prevalence.

Abstract

The study investigated and compared welfare conditions and gastrointestinal (GI) parasites distribution among organic (ORG) and conventional (CONV) farms in central Italy. Five ORG and five CONV farms were assessed for animal welfare with an adapted version of the AssureWel protocol. Faecal samples collected from the rectum of the animals both in ORG (n = 150) and CONV (n = 150) were analysed using conventional copromiscroscopy. The presence of skin damages in the rear legs was significantly predominant (p < 0.001) in CONV (26.7%) compared with ORG farms (10.0%). No differences were found for lameness, cleanliness, Body Condition Score, hair loss, body lesions and swelling prevalence. Data concerning the productive performances, e.g., total milk, fat and protein yields standardised in mature equivalent (ME) were collected. ME milk yield (ORG: 9656.9 ± 1620.7 kg; CONV: 12,047.2 ± 2635.3) and ME fat yield (ORG: 396.6 ± 66.8; CONV: 450.3 ± 102.8) were significantly lower in ORG farms (p < 0.001). Anthelmintics were used regularly in 4/5 CONV and 0/5 ORG farms. In 2 CONV farms (40%) and 4 ORGs (80%) at least one animal tested positive for GI parasites. No significant differences in parasites prevalence emerged (ORG = 10.7%; CONV = 8%). These data indicate that ORG farming does not influence parasite prevalence and animal welfare status.

Effects of housing beef cow-calf pairs on drylot or pasture in the Midwest on production parameters and calf behavior through feedlot receiving

The objectives were to analyze the effects of housing cow-calf pairs in drylots (DL) or pasture (PAST) on cow performance and reproduction as well as calf performance and behavior through feedlot receiving. Simmental × Angus (2 yr; 108/yr; 81 ± 15.3 d postpartum) spring-calving cows were stratified by age, body weight (BW), body condition score (BCS), and calf sex and allotted to six groups per year. Groups were randomly assigned to one of two treatments: DL or PAST. Cows in DL were limit-fed at maintenance and calves had ad libitum access to the cow diet in an adjacent pen. Pairs on PAST were rotationally grazed and calves received creep ad libitum 3 wk prior to weaning. On day 110, calves were fence-line weaned and behavior was observed on days 111 and 112. On day 116, calves were transported 272 km to a feedlot for a 42-d receiving period. Behavior was evaluated again on days 117 and 118. Data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure of SAS except reproductive data which was analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure. Cows on DL had greater (P ≤ 0.01) BW and BCS at weaning. There were no differences (P ≥ 0.42) detected in reproductive data. Cows on DL had greater (P = 0.02) milk production. Calves on DL had greater BW (P ≤ 0.01) on day 55 and at weaning and greater preweaning average daily gain (ADG). There were treatment × time effects (P = 0.01) for lying and eating on days 111 and 112. More DL calves were eating in the morning and lying in the evening. More (P < 0.01) PAST calves were walking on day 111. Pasture calves vocalized more (P ≤ 0.01) on day 112. On day 117, more (P ≤ 0.05) pasture calves were lying and eating, and DL vocalized more. On day 118, treatment × time and treatment effects were detected (P ≤ 0.02) for lying and walking. More PAST calves were lying and more DL calves were walking. Drylot calves had greater (P ≤ 0.02) BW at the beginning and end of the receiving phase. Pasture calves had greater (P < 0.01) ADG and tended (P = 0.10) to have greater gain efficiency during feedlot receiving phase. In conclusion, housing cow-calf pairs in drylots improved BW, BCS, and milk production of cows but did not affect reproductive performance. Drylot calves had increased BW and ADG during the preweaning phase. Calf behavior at weaning and receiving was influenced by preweaning housing. Pasture calves had improved receiving phase ADG and feed efficiency but were still lighter than drylot calves after 42-d receiving phase.

Culling and mortality of dairy cows: why it happens and how it can be mitigated

The United Nations estimates that the global population will total 9.7 billion in 2050. Rapid population growth pose a significant obstacle to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals, particularly eradicating hunger and poverty. In view of the expanding population growth, food production ideally should triple to prevent massive food shortages. Sustainable food and nutrition security is the focal point of the dairy industry. Dairy production plays a pivotal role in addressing and advancing global food and nutrition security. It serves as a major source of protein, calcium, and phosphorus in many families in developing countries with a fast-growing population. Consequently, the dairy industry is expected to grow by approximately 26% in the next 10 years and produce an estimated 1077 million tonnes of milk by 2050. However, the growth and distribution of the dairy industry is limited by many factors such as culling and mortality of dairy cows. Several studies highlight reproduction failures, old age, poor milk yield, diseases (mastitis, lameness, and dystocia), and heat stress as some reasons for culling of dairy cows. Hence, this review highlights the factors influencing culling and mortality in dairy production farms, and discusses mitigating measures to limit culling.

Dairy farmer, hoof trimmer, and veterinarian perceptions of barriers and roles in lameness management

Lameness is a leading animal welfare concern in the dairy industry. Multiple stakeholders are involved in lameness management on a dairy farm, including farmers, hoof trimmers, and veterinarians. This study sought to explore perceptions of lameness, perceptions of roles in lameness management, and barriers to improved lameness management in these groups. Fourteen homogeneous focus groups were held in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and New York from April 2017 to March 2020; 5 with farmers (n = 31), 4 with hoof trimmers (n = 32), and 5 with veterinarians (n = 25). The 1-h facilitated discussions were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and common themes identified through thematic analysis. Lameness was perceived by participants as a complex health problem and one in which the connections between pathogenesis, facilities, and management were not always well understood or easy to change. The complexity of the problem encompassed the lack of agreement on a definition of lameness, normalization to its signs, and the interconnectedness of lameness with other health and management issues. These issues appeared to contribute to resignation by participants that lameness was inevitable. Despite shared concerns about lameness among these groups, respondents reported a lack of communication, especially between hoof trimmers and veterinarians. Participants also voiced a desire to work together more productively, with hoof trimmers and veterinarians valuing the ability to deliver a consistent message to farmers. These findings suggest a need for increased efforts to facilitate collaboration between farmers, hoof trimmers, and veterinarians to improve lameness management on dairy farms.

Perspectives of Western Canadian dairy farmers on providing outdoor access for dairy cows

Dairy cows are highly motivated to access pasture, especially at night in summer. When pasture is not available, dairy cows show a partial preference for alternative types of outdoor access, spending half the night outside in summer on an outdoor sand or wood chip pack. However, many dairy farms do not provide cows outside access. To better understand reasons why dairy farmers choose to provide or not provide outdoor access, we studied the perspectives of dairy farmers located in the 4 Western Canadian provinces: British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. Data were collected via (1) 11 focus group discussions with a total of 50 Western Canadian dairy farmers, and (2) semi-structured individual interviews with 6 dairy farmers of Hutterite colonies. Transcripts were analyzed using template analysis. Reasons to not provide outdoor access fell into 5 main themes: (1) adverse climate conditions, (2) negative implications of outdoor access for cow welfare including concerns about udder health, (3) concerns regarding decreases in profitability, (4) farm infrastructure not set up for outdoor access, and (5) higher ability to manage animals kept indoors. Reasons to provide outdoor access fell into the 5 main themes: (1) local climate conditions conducive for outdoor access, (2) beneficial effects of outdoor access on cow welfare including lower lameness prevalence, (3) increased profitability due to a premium milk price provided to farmers that allow pasture access to their cows, (4) farm infrastructure that is set up for outdoor access, and (5) easier management of animals outdoors. We conclude that the decision to provide outdoor access depends on how farmers weigh these factors given the constraints on their farm, as well as their personal beliefs and values.

Animal welfare outcomes and associated risk indicators on Austrian dairy farms: A cross-sectional study

In 2017, an Austrian dairy company implemented a third-party animal-based assessment of health and welfare to stimulate welfare improvements on farms. Using this cross-sectional data set, we aimed at identifying prevailing welfare problems and associations thereof with main farm and management characteristics. Welfare outcome measures regarding body condition, cleanliness, diarrhea, integument alterations, claw condition, lameness, rising behavior, and avoidance distance toward humans were assessed by 13 trained observers. Data from health recordings and farm characteristics, such as housing system, feeding regimen, and pasture access, were collected via a questionnaire. Analyses included outcome measures from 23,749 individual cows on 1,221 farms [median (M) herd size = 19, interquartile range (IQR) = 16]. Herd-level prevalence of the outcome measures showed a high between-farm variability with highest median values for dirty lower hind leg (M = 46%, IQR = 47), signs of diarrhea (M = 28%, IQR = 39), and hairless patches on the tarsal joint (M = 21%, IQR = 36). Median prevalence of severe welfare problems, such as very lean cows, lesions, lameness, or mastitis treatments, were low compared with previously reported findings (very lean: 0%, IQR = 0; lesion tarsus: 0%, IQR = 4; moderately lame loose-housed: 7%, IQR = 16; mastitis treatments: 10%, IQR = 16). On half of the farms, at least 83% (IQR = 25) of the assessed cows could be touched in a standardized approach test, indicating a good human-animal relationship. Using generalized linear models, we found frequent associations with welfare outcome measures for the amount of milk delivered per cow (e.g., lower risk of very lean cows or dirty hind legs but higher risk of mastitis treatments or antibiotic dry-off with increasing milk delivery), housing system (e.g., loose-housed animals were at lower risk of lesions on the tarsal joint than animals kept in tiestalls, but at higher risk of being classified as very fat), and assessment period (winter vs. summer period). Beneficial associations were consistently found for an increasing number of days with access to pasture (e.g., body condition, integument alterations, lameness) as well as organic compared with conventional farming (e.g., integument alterations, claw health, lameness). Although the latter associations may be especially important for advisory services, in policy making, or when engaging with the public, other farm or management characteristics require careful attention, as they may have both beneficial as well as adverse impacts on welfare, calling for good management skills to avoid undesired effects.

Beef production from cull dairy cows: a review from culling to consumption

Although more than 3 million head of dairy cows enter the food supply chain in the U.S. every year, research on this topic remains limited and scarce. Meat production from dairy cows is a significant component of beef production, accounting for almost 10% of U.S. commercial beef production. Thus, the purpose of this review is to demonstrate the importance of dairy cows as a beef source, and to provide an overview on topics from farm to meat product-culling, marketing, transportation, welfare, body composition and its relationship with lactation particularities, carcass characteristics, meat quality, and traceability. Current scientific evidence has shown that culling a dairy cow at an appropriate time has beneficial effects on cow welfare and, consequently, cow value. During marketing the dairy cow is visually evaluated for health and factors associated with its expected carcass value; thus, marketing a well-conditioned cow will ensure that the animal is fit for transportation and provides high carcass yield. However, limitations such as low body condition score, lameness or mobility problems, and visual defects remain persistent. Even though beef harvest plants accommodate cows in all body composition states, the current carcass grade system does not reflect the mature cow industry needs. Therefore, improvement of the grading system could maximize carcass utilization and increase cow carcass value by recognizing subprimal cuts that could be merchandised as whole muscle cuts. Lastly, implementation of a traceability system would unify information from the farm to harvest assisting the industry in making further advancements.

Keeping Dairy Cows for Longer: A Critical Literature Review on Dairy Cow Longevity in High Milk-Producing Countries

Simple Summary

The ability of farms to produce milk sustainably is closely related to dairy cow longevity, i.e., the length of productive life. However, longevity is a very complex feature that depends on all the aspects of the lifespan of a cow and there is no standard definition nor metric to measure it. Measuring longevity is important because it influences the profitability and the environmental impact of farms as well as the welfare of the animals. The objectives of this paper were to review metrics used to measure longevity and describe its status among high milk-producing countries. Increasing dairy cow longevity would imply that an animal has an early age at first calving and a long and profitable productive life. Combining age at first calving, length of productive life, and margin over all (available) costs provides a complete evaluation of longevity. This paper also shows that dairy cow longevity has decreased in most high milk-producing countries over time, which confirm the concerns voiced by the dairy industry and other stakeholders. Increasing cow longevity would reduce health costs and increase cow profitability while improving both animal welfare and quality of life, contributing to a more sustainable dairy industry.

Abstract

The ability of dairy farmers to keep their cows for longer could positively enhance the economic performance of the farms, reduce the environmental footprint of the milk industry, and overall help in justifying a sustainable use of animals for food production. However, there is little published on the current status of cow longevity and we hypothesized that a reason may be a lack of standardization and an over narrow focus of the longevity measure itself. The objectives of this critical literature review were: (1) to review metrics used to measure dairy cow longevity; (2) to describe the status of longevity in high milk-producing countries. Current metrics are limited to either the length of time the animal remains in the herd or if it is alive at a given time. To overcome such a limitation, dairy cow longevity should be defined as an animal having an early age at first calving and a long productive life spent in profitable milk production. Combining age at first calving, length of productive life, and margin over all costs would provide a more comprehensive evaluation of longevity by covering both early life conditions and the length of time the animal remains in the herd once it starts to contribute to the farm revenues, as well as the overall animal health and quality of life. This review confirms that dairy cow longevity has decreased in most high milk-producing countries over time and its relationship with milk yield is not straight forward. Increasing cow longevity by reducing involuntary culling would cut health costs, increase cow lifetime profitability, improve animal welfare, and could contribute towards a more sustainable dairy industry while optimizing dairy farmers’ efficiency in the overall use of resources available.

Monitoring and Improving the Metabolic Health of Dairy Cows during the Transition Period

Simple Summary

The transition from late gestation to early lactation is a challenging period for dairy cows. A successful transition period depends on metabolic adaptation to the new physiological state in early lactation and proper management in order to support the cow’s requirements. This review paper will discuss various aspects of routine and consistent approaches to collect and analyze herd records, to detect unintended disruptions in performance. In addition, we discuss how to incorporate methods to assess health, production, nutrition, and welfare information to monitor cows during the transition period. Lastly, we discuss management strategies that can be implemented to improve the metabolic health and performance of transition dairy cows.

Abstract

The peripartum period of a dairy cow is characterized by several physiological and behavioral changes in response to a rapid increase in nutrient demands, to support the final stages of fetal growth and the production of colostrum and milk. Traditionally, the transition period is defined as the period 3 weeks before and 3 weeks after parturition. However, several researchers have argued that the transition period begins at the time of dry-off (~60–50 days prior to calving) and extends beyond the first month post-calving in high producing dairy cows. Independent of the definition used, adequate adaptation to the physiological demands of this period is paramount for a successful lactation. Nonetheless, not all cows are successful in transitioning from late gestation to early lactation, leading to approximately one third of dairy cows having at least one clinical disease (metabolic and/or infectious) and more than half of the cows having at least one subclinical case of disease within the first 90 days of lactation. Thus, monitoring dairy cows during this period is essential to detect early disease signs, diagnose clinical and subclinical diseases, and initiate targeted health management to avoid health and production impairment. In this review, we discuss different strategies to monitor dairy cows to detected unintended disruptions in performance and management strategies that can be implemented to improve the metabolic health and performance of dairy cows during the transition period.

Factors Associated With Lameness in Tie Stall Housed Dairy Cows in South Germany

Lameness remains a major concern for animal welfare and productivity in modern dairy production. Even though a trend toward loose housing systems exists and the public expects livestock to be kept under conditions where freedom of movement and the expression of natural behavior are ensured, restrictive housing systems continue to be the predominant type of housing in some regions. Factors associated with lameness were evaluated by application of multiple logistic regression modeling on data of 1,006 dairy cows from 56 tie stall farms in Bavaria, South Germany. In this population, approximately every fourth cow was lame (24.44% of scored animals). The mean farm level prevalence of lameness was 23.28%. In total, 22 factors were analyzed regarding their association with lameness. A low Body Condition Score (BCS) (OR 1.54 [95%-CI 1.05-2.25]) as well as increasing parity (OR 1.41 [95%-CI 1.29-1.54]) entailed greater odds of lameness. Moreover, higher milk yield (OR 0.98 [95%-CI 0.96-1.00]) and organic farming (OR 0.48 [95%-0.25-0.92]) appeared to be protectively associated with lameness. Cows with hock injuries (OR 2.57 [95%-CI 1.41-4.67]) or with swellings of the ribs (OR 2.55 [95%-CI 1.53-4.23]) had higher odds of lameness. A similar association was observed for the contamination of the lower legs with distinct plaques of manure (OR 1.88 [95%-CI 1.14-3.10]). As a central aspect of tie stall housing, the length of the stalls was associated with lameness; with stalls of medium [(>158-171 cm) (OR 2.15 [95%-CI 1.29-3.58]) and short (≤158 cm) length (OR 4.07 [95%-CI 2.35-7.05]) increasing the odds compared with long stalls (>171 cm). These results can help both gaining knowledge on relevant factors associated with lameness as well as approaching the problem of dairy cow lameness in tie stall operations.

Randomized controlled trial comparison of analgesic drugs for control of pain associated with induced lameness in lactating dairy cattle

Both the economic loss and welfare implications of lameness affect the dairy industry. Currently no analgesic drugs are approved to alleviate lameness-associated pain in lactating dairy cattle in the United States. In this randomized controlled trial, 48 lactating Holsteins were enrolled to evaluate the effect of oral meloxicam and i.v. flunixin meglumine on induced lameness. Cows were allocated to 1 of 4 treatment groups (n = 12 per group): lameness and flunixin meglumine (LAME + FLU); lameness and meloxicam (LAME + MEL); lameness and placebo (LAME + PLBO); or sham induction and placebo (SHAM + PLBO). Six hours before treatment, arthritis-synovitis was induced in the distal interphalangeal joint with 20 mg of amphotericin B, whereas SHAM cows were given an intra-articular injection of an equal volume (4 mL) of isotonic saline. Cows in LAME + FLU received 2.2 mg/kg flunixin meglumine i.v. and whey protein placebo orally; LAME + MEL were administered 1 mg/kg meloxicam orally and 2 mL/45 kg sterile saline placebo i.v.; LAME + PLBO were administered 2 mL/45 kg sterile saline placebo i.v. and whey protein placebo orally; and SHAM + PLBO received 2 mL/45 kg sterile saline placebo i.v. and whey protein placebo orally. The initial treatment of MEL, FLU, or PLBO was identified as time 0 h and followed by a second dose 24 h later with data collection for 120 h. The methods used to assess analgesic efficacy were electronic pressure mat, visual lameness assessment, visual analog score, plasma cortisol concentration, plasma substance P concentration, mechanical nociception threshold, and infrared thermography imaging. Linear mixed effect modeling was the primary method of statistical analysis. Visual lameness scoring indicated a lower proportion of the FLU + LAME group was lame at the T2 h and T8 h time points in comparison to the positive controls, whereas MEL therapy resulted in a lower proportion of lame cows at the T8 h time point. Cortisol area under the effect curve was lower following FLU therapy compared with LAME + PBLO for the 0-2 h (LSM difference = 35.1 ng·h/mL, 95% CI: 6.8, 63.3 ng·h/mL), 2-8 h (LSM difference = 120.6 ng·h/mL, 95% CI: 77.2, 164.0 ng·h/mL), and 0-24 h (LSM difference = 226.0 ng·h/mL, 95% CI: 103.3, 348.8 ng·h/mL) time intervals. Following MEL therapy, cortisol area under the effect curve was lower than LAME + PLBO for both the 2 to 8 h (LSM difference = 93.6 ng·h/mL, 95% CI: 50.2, 137.0 ng·h/mL) and 0 to 24 h time intervals (LSM difference = 187.6 ng·h/mL, 95% CI: 64.9, 310.4 ng·h/mL). Analysis of data from other assessment modalities failed to discern biologically relevant differences between treatment groups. We conclude that meaningful differences were evident for visual lameness assessment and cortisol from MEL and FLU treatment versus the positive control. Further clinical research is needed toward development of a model that will create reproducible events that are more pronounced in severity and duration of lameness which can be validated as a substitute for naturally occurring lameness cases.

Cow- and herd-level factors associated with lameness in dairy farms in Peninsular Malaysia

Lameness is a major welfare issue in dairy cows. This study was aimed at investigating the cow- and herd -level factors associated with lameness in dairy farms from four states in Peninsular Malaysia. The study population was 1001 lactating cows from 28 dairy farms located in Selangor (n = 9), Perak (n = 8), Negeri Sembilan (n = 6) and Johor (n = 5). Lameness was assessed by locomotion scoring. Individual cow characteristics such as breeds, parity, body condition score (BCS), hock condition, leg hygiene, presence of claw lesion and claw overgrowth were recorded. Data on herd characteristics, management practices and housing design were collected by on-farm inspection and farmers' interview. Mixed-eff ;ects logistic regressions were used to model the data and to assess the factors associated with lameness. Cow-level lameness prevalence was 34.2 % (95 % CI 22.2-50.0 %), with all the farms having at least one case of lameness. Claw lesions were recorded in 470 cows (46.9 %; CI 33.3-63.3 %) of which 296 (62.9 %) of them were lame. Of these, 78.9 % of the lesions were present on the rear feet and 25.5% of the cows had more than one foot affected. The proportion of cows having non-infectious and infectious claw lesions were 81.9 % and 18.1 %, and the predominant claw lesions were sole ulcers (24.9 %), white line disease (19.6 %), sole haemorrhage (10.2%), swelling of coronet (9.6 %), toe ulcers (8.4 %), and digital dermatitis (5.6%). Cows at third or more parities had higher odds of lameness (OR = 2.2; 95 % CI 1.2-4.1) compared to primiparous cows. Low BCS (< 2.5) increased the odds of lameness (OR = 4.8; 95 % CI 2.9-7.9) relative to cows with moderate BCS, and cows with hair loss around the hock (OR = 1.4; 95 % CI 1.1-1.9) relative to those with normal hock condition. Greater odds of being lame was observed in cows having claw lesion (OR = 15.2; 95 % CI 10.4-19.2) and those with overgrown claw (OR = 3.3; 95 % CI 2.4-4.5). There was increased odds of lameness in farms with high stocking density (OR = 1.8; 95 % CI 1.1-3.1), concrete floored walkways (OR = 1.9; 95 % CI 1.0-3.6), dirty floors (OR = 2.3; 95 % CI 1.9-3.7), and practicing preventive claw trimming (OR = 2.3; 95 % CI 1.9-4.6). Based on the high lameness prevalence, these findings could assist dairy farmers to make informed decisions on areas to implement on-farm changes to reduce lameness in the studied herds.

Association between lameness risk assessment and lameness and foot lesion prevalence on dairy farms in Alberta, Canada

Lameness is a detrimental health and welfare concern of dairy cattle with high prevalence in North American herds. As a practical and farm-specific approach toward its mitigation in Alberta, Canada, a score-based lameness risk assessment questionnaire (RAQ) was developed for veterinarians to conduct with their clients; however, its accuracy in identifying risk for lameness and hoof lesions has not been evaluated. Our objectives were to (1) provide an update on prevalence of lameness and hoof lesions in Alberta freestall herds, (2) validate the RAQ by determining the association between RAQ scores and the prevalence of herd lameness and herd lesions, and (3) determine the association between presence of common hoof lesions and lameness. For the first 2 objectives, 65 Alberta dairy farms were visited between March and October 2018 to collect a completed RAQ, hoof trimming records from their hoof trimmer, and video footage of the entire lactating herd. For the third objective, 10 participant herds were visited twice between November 2013 and June 2014 to take video footage of the entire lactating herd and collect hoof trimming records from their hoof trimmer within 48 h after video footage collection. Median herd-level lameness prevalence was 20% (range = 2-56%), infectious lesion prevalence was 10% (range = 0-49%), and noninfectious lesion prevalence was 15% (range = 2-39%). Of cows that were lame, 93% had a lesion, whereas 21% of cows with a lesion were lame. Cows with an infectious and noninfectious lesion were, respectively, 1.5 and 3.1 times more likely to be lame than cows with no lesion. Total RAQ score and herd lameness prevalence were correlated (r = 0.26) and noninfectious RAQ score and noninfectious lesion prevalence were correlated (r = 0.45), whereas infectious RAQ score and infectious lesion prevalence were not. Cow-level mixed logistic regression models indicated no associations between any of the RAQ scores and presence of lameness or a hoof lesion. Lameness prevalence in Alberta remains high, indicative of a low adoption rate of mitigation strategies by producers. Improvement of the RAQ could allow for better reflection of lameness and lesions on farm and can be achieved through further risk factor analysis within the RAQ, which may result in removal or addition of questions as well as the adjustment of scores based on risk factors' strength of association with lameness and lesions.

Accurate detection of lameness in dairy cattle with computer vision: A new and individualized detection strategy based on the analysis of the supporting phase

Lameness has a considerable influence on the welfare and health of dairy cows. Many attempts have been made to develop automatic lameness detection systems using computer vision technology. However, these detection methods are easily affected by the characteristics of individual cows, resulting in inaccurate detection of lameness. Therefore, this study explores an individualized lameness detection method for dairy cattle based on the supporting phase using computer vision. This approach is applied to eliminate the influence of the characteristics of individual cows and to detect lame cows and lame hooves. In this paper, the correlation coefficient between lameness and the supporting phase is calculated, a lameness detection algorithm based on the supporting phase is proposed, and the accuracy of the algorithm is verified. Additionally, the reliability of this method using computer vision technology is verified based on deep learning. One hundred naturally walking cows are selected from video data for analysis. The results show that the correlation between lameness and the supporting phase was 0.864; 96% of cows were correctly classified, and 93% of lame hooves were correctly detected using the supporting phase-based lameness detection algorithm. The mean average precision is 87.0%, and the number of frames per second is 83.3 when the Receptive Field Block Net Single Shot Detector deep learning network was used to detect the locations of cow hooves in the video. The results show that the supporting phase-based lameness detection method proposed in this paper can be used for the detection and classification of cow lameness and the detection of lame hooves with high accuracy. This approach eliminates the influence of individual cow characteristics and could be integrated into an automatic detection system and widely applied for the detection of cow lameness.

Urinary metabolomics fingerprinting around parturition identifies metabolites that differentiate lame dairy cows from healthy ones

Lameness is a very important disorder of periparturient dairy cows with implications on milk production and composition as well as with consequences on reproductive performance. The aetiology of lameness is not clear although there have been various hypotheses suggested over the years. The objective of this study was to metabotype the urine of dairy cows prior to, during and after the onset of lameness by evaluating at weeks -8, -4 pre-calving, the week of lameness diagnosis, and +4 and +8 weeks post-calving. We used a metabolomics approach to analyse urine samples collected from dairy cows around calving (6 cows with lameness v. 20 healthy control cows). A total of 153 metabolites were identified and quantified using an in-house MS library and classified into 6 groups including: 11 amino acids (AAs), 39 acylcarnitines (ACs), 3 biogenic amines (BAs), 84 glycerophospholipids, 15 sphingolipids and hexose. A total of 23, 36, 40, 23 and 49 metabolites were observed to be significantly different between the lame and healthy cows at -8 and -4 weeks pre-calving, week of lameness diagnosis as well as at +4 and +8 weeks post-calving, respectively. It should be noted that most of the identified metabolites were elevated; however, a few of them were also lower in lame cows. Overall, ACs and glycerophospholipids, specifically phosphatidylcholines (PCs), were the metabolite groups displaying the strongest differences in the urine of pre-lame and lame cows. Lysophosphatidylcholines (LysoPCs), although to a lesser extent than PCs, were altered at all time points. Alterations in urinary AA concentrations were also observed during the current study for four time points. During the pre-calving period, there was an observed elevation of arginine (-8 week), tyrosine (-8 week) and aspartate (-4 week), as well as a depression of urinary glutamate (-4 weeks). In the current study, it was additionally observed that concentrations of several sphingomyelins and one BA were altered in pre-lame and lame cows. Symmetric dimethylarginine was elevated at both -8 weeks pre-calving and the week of lameness diagnosis. Data showed that urinary fingerprinting might be a reliable methodology to be used in the future to differentiate lame cows from healthy ones.

Symposium review: Future of housing for dairy cattle

The objective of this review was to describe recent changes and expected developments in housing systems for dairy cows. These new developments should create an appropriate production environment for modern high-producing dairy cows and stimulate dairy farming-related developments in management, agro-technology, and equipment. Increased labor efficiency has been an important driver of the change from tie-stall barns to cubicle barns (also known as freestall barns). In future housing systems, the natural behavior of cows, climate control, emissions of ammonia and greenhouse gases, reuse of waste, manure quality, the aesthetics of buildings in the landscape, and capital efficiency are becoming increasingly important elements. To address future requirements, new concepts beyond cubicle barns must be developed. Freewalk housing systems; that is, loose housing systems without cubicles, would meet some of these future demands. These systems operate with composting bedding material or artificial permeable floors as lying and walking areas. However, these barns are still in development. Combinations of cubicle and freewalk housing systems, together with other techniques being developed, might become a major future housing system. Other techniques and systems that are being explored according to sustainability criteria include the multi-climate shed, the CowToilet (Hanskamp AgroTech, Doetinchem, the Netherlands) to separate feces and urine, and multifunctional buildings. These buildings and techniques can be part of land-based or, less commonly, city-based farming systems, such as floating farms.

Univariate associations between housing, management, and facility design factors and the prevalence of lameness lesions in fourteen small-scale dairy farms in Northeastern Algeria

Background and Aim:

This cross-sectional study aimed to analyze the associations between different types of housing, management, and facilities on the prevalence of lame, causing lesions in smallholder dairy farms in Algeria.

Materials and Methods:

The on-site investigation took place between December 2012 and May 2015. All cows were locomotion scored on a four-point scale, and foot lesions causing lame were diagnosed and recorded. Factors related to the farm and the cows’ conditions were also assessed. The association between the possible risk factors and lame lesions was assessed using univariate analysis.

Results:

Of the 349 cows evaluated, 13% were lame (lameness score ≥2), with higher lameness values recorded for the hind feet than for the forefeet. Cows without lameness were classified as healthy. The two most frequent lesion diagnoses observed in lame cows were interdigital dermatitis/heel horn erosion (ID/HE; 39%) and interdigital phlegmon (IP; 35%), followed by traumatic lesions (T; 11%), digital dermatitis (DD; 8.7%), and laminitis-related diseases (L; 6.5%). The risk of being lame was increased in large herds with cows of the Holstein breed, and those in the third parity and above. Tie housing, concrete floor, concentrate feeding, zero-grazing, and the use of foot trimming occasionally were associated with increased risk for the presence of lame lesions. The region and footbathing frequency had no association with the prevalence of lame lesions (p≥0.05).

Conclusion:

These results have important implications; they indicate that several aspects of housing, management, and facility design are common protective factors for the prevalence of lame lesions. These factors should be maintained correctly to not only reduce the number of lame cows in these herds but also decrease the direct and indirect costs associated with cases of lameness.

Urinary Metabolomics around Parturition Identifies Metabolite Alterations in Dairy Cows Affected Postpartum by Lameness: Preliminary Study

(1) Background: The objective of this study was to evaluate the urine of dairy cows for presence of metabolites with the potential to be used as screening biomarkers for lameness as well as to characterize pre-lame, lame, and post-lame cows from the metabolic prospective. (2) Methods: Six lame and 20 control healthy cows were used in this nested case-control study. Urinary 1H-NMR analysis was used to identify and measure metabolites at five time points including −8 and −4 weeks prepartum, lameness diagnosis week (1–3 weeks postpartum) as well as at +4 and +8 weeks after calving. (3) Results: A total of 90 metabolites were identified and measured in the urine. At −8 and −4 weeks, 27 prepartum metabolites were identified as altered, at both timepoints, with 19 and 5 metabolites excreted at a lower concentration, respectively. Additionally, a total of 8 and 22 metabolites were found at greater concentration in pre-lame cows at −8 and −4 weeks, respectively. Lame cows were identified to excrete, at lower concentrations, seven metabolites during a lameness event with the top five most important metabolites being Tyr, adipate, glycerate, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutarate, and uracil. Alterations in urinary metabolites also were present at +4 and +8 weeks after calving with N-acetylaspartate, glutamine, imidazole, pantothenate, beta-alanine and trimethylamine, with the greatest VIP (variable importance in projection) score at +4 weeks; and hipurate, pantothenate 1,3-dihydroxyacetone, galactose, and Tyr, with the greatest VIP score at +8 weeks postpartum. (4) Conclusions: Overall, results showed that urine metabotyping can be used to identify cows at risk of lameness and to better characterize lameness from the metabolic prospective. However, caution should be taken in interpretation of the data presented because of the low number of replicates.

Impacts of Compost Bedded Pack Barns on the Welfare and Comfort of Dairy Cows

Simple Summary

As few studies have examined the most common housing systems in terms of cow behavior and welfare, we designed this study to compare three loose housing systems for lactating cows: compost bedded pack, conventional bedded pack, and freestalls. Cows kept in bedded pack barns were dirtier yet had fewer hairless patches and lesions or swellings on the body and spent more time lying down in the resting area than cows housed in freestalls. All housing systems show benefits and inconveniences in terms of welfare and comfort at resting. Other factors, such as management practices and proper barn design, should be considered when comparing housing systems in terms of animal welfare.

Abstract

Three loose housing systems for lactating cows (compost bedded pack, CBP; conventional bedded pack, BP; and freestalls, FS) were assessed on one farm in terms of cow behavior and welfare. An on-farm welfare assessment based on the Welfare Quality protocols was used four times every three months on 757 cows. Video recordings taken twice over four days were used to assess behavior patterns at resting areas. Cows in CBP and BP were dirtier than those in FS (p < 0.0001). Fewer integument alterations were recorded for CBP and BP than FS (p < 0.001). Cows in BP were quicker to lie down and stand up compared to those in CBP or FS (p < 0.001). Percentages of cows needing more attempts before rising were higher for FS (p < 0.01). However, a higher frequency of kneeling was observed in CBP (p = 0.033). A lower percentage of cows lying in the resting area was recorded for FS (56%) than CBP or BP (97 or 84%, respectively, p < 0.05). Overall, in this study, cows kept in bedded pack barns were dirtier but had fewer integument alterations and spent more time lying down in the resting area than cows housed in freestalls.

A systematic review and meta-analyses of risk factors associated with lameness in dairy cows

BACKGROUND

Lameness in dairy cows has been an ongoing concern of great relevance to animal welfare and productivity in modern dairy production. Many studies have examined associations between various factors related to housing, management, and the individual animal and the occurrence of lameness. The objective of this systematic review was to answer the research question "what are risk factors associated with lameness in dairy cows that are housed in free stall barns or tie stall facilities". Furthermore, we performed a synthesis of current evidence on certain risk factors by means of a meta-analysis to illustrate the strength of their association with bovine lameness.

RESULTS

Following pre-defined procedures and inclusion criteria in accordance with the PRISMA statement, two observers independently included 53 articles out of a pool of 1941 articles which had been retrieved by a broad literature research in a first step. 128 factors that have been associated with lameness were identified in those papers. Meta-analyses were conducted for five factors presented in six different studies: Body condition score, presence of claw overgrowth, days in milk, herd size, and parity. Results indicated that a body condition score of ≤2.5/5 is associated with increased odds of lameness. A higher risk of being lame was found for the presence of claw overgrowth, the first 120 days in milk, larger herd sizes, and increasing parity. Throughout the study, we encountered profound difficulties in retrieving data and information of sufficient quality from primary articles as well as in recovering comparable studies.

CONCLUSIONS

We learned that an abundance of literature on bovine lameness exists. To adequately address a problem of this importance to both animal welfare and economic viability, solid evidence is required in the future to develop effective intervention strategies. Therefore, a consistent working definition of lameness and specific risk factors should be an option to consider.

Sampling strategies for assessing lameness, injuries, and body condition score on dairy farms

Our objective was to evaluate how sampling strategies (i.e., how many cows to sample and which animals to include) used in 4 dairy cattle welfare assessment programs affect the classification of dairy farms relative to thresholds of acceptability for animal-based measures. We predicted that classification performance would improve when more cows were sampled and when selecting from all lactating cows versus when some pens were excluded. On 38 freestall farms, we assessed all 12,375 cows for lameness, injuries on the tarsal (hock) and carpal joints, and body condition score and calculated the farm-level prevalence for each measure. Based on approaches used in the industry, we evaluated 6 sampling strategies generated using formulas with precision (d) of 15, 10, or 5% applied to either a single high-producing pen or all lactating cows; an additional sample was included with d = 10% applied to the entire herd, selecting lactating cows in proportion to their representation in the herd. For each sampling strategy, cow records were selected randomly (in 10,000 replicates) to calculate prevalence. The strategy of assessing all cows in the high-producing pen was also compared. Farms were classified as meeting (below) or failing to meet (above) thresholds of ≤15% moderate lameness; ≤20% moderate carpal or hock injuries; <10, <5, and ≤1% severe lameness; or injuries on the carpus or hock; and <5, <3, <1, or 0% thin cows. For each measure and threshold, we calculated pooled percent agreement, kappa, sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive value for each sampling strategy using true prevalence as the gold standard for herd classification. Across measures and thresholds, classification performance increased with the number of cows sampled [i.e., when narrower precision values (d = 5 vs. 10 vs. 15%) were used in the sample size calculation]. Because narrower precision values can dramatically increase sample size, assessment programs may need to consider both feasibility and the degree of misclassification they will accept. Applying the formula directly to lactating cows performed better than applying it to the entire herd and then selecting lactating cows in proportion to their representation in the herd. Farm classifications were similar whether cows in the hospital pen were included or excluded from the sample. Selecting all cows from the high-producing pen resulted in classifications similar to when including all lactating cows, suggesting that assessing cows from the high-producing pen may serve as an acceptable proxy for all lactating cows on the farm.

Efficacy of recycled sand or organic solids as bedding sources for lactating cows housed in freestalls

Our objective was to compare the composition of bedding materials and manure, cow welfare and hygiene assessments, measures of milk production and quality, and incidence of mastitis during a 3-yr trial with lactating Holstein cows housed in a freestall barn containing 4 identical pens with 32 freestalls/pen. Bedding systems evaluated included deep-bedded organic manure solids (DBOS), shallow-bedded manure solids spread over mattresses (MAT), deep-bedded recycled sand (RSA), and deep-bedded new sand (NSA). The experiment was designed as a 4 × 4 Latin square with 4 bedding systems and 4 experimental periods, but was terminated after 3 yr following discussions with the consulting statistician; therefore, data were analyzed as an incomplete Latin square. A total of n = 734 mostly primiparous cows (n = 725 primiparous, n = 9 multiparous; 224 to 267 cows/yr) were enrolled in the trial. Before placement in freestalls, organic solids (OS) exhibited lower concentrations of dry matter (36.5 vs. 94.3%), and greater concentrations of volatile solids, C, N, NH₄-N, P, water-extractable P, K, and S compared with RSA or NSA. Cow comfort index was greater for sand-bedded systems compared with those using OS (88.4 vs. 82.8%). Cows bedded in systems using OS (DBOS and MAT) exhibited greater mean hock scores (1 = no swelling, no hair loss; 2 = no swelling, bald area on hock) than those bedded in sand (1.25 vs. 1.04), but this effect was entirely associated with use of mattresses (MAT), which differed sharply from DBOS (1.42 vs. 1.07). Generally, hygiene scores for legs, flanks, and udders were numerically similar for DBOS, NSA, and RSA bedding systems, and differences between bedding systems were associated entirely with MAT, yielding detectable contrasts between MAT and DBOS for legs (2.94 vs. 2.20), flanks (2.34 vs. 1.68), and udders (1.83 vs. 1.38). No significant contrast comparing bedding systems was detected for measures of milk production or quality. Documented cases of clinical mastitis requiring treatment ranged from a low rate of 7.4 cases/yr for RSA to a high of 23.1 cases/yr for DBOS, based on a mean enrollment of 60.7 to 63.0 cows/treatment per yr. Cows bedded with OS exhibited a greater incidence of mastitis than those bedded with sand (19.0 vs. 8.4 cases/yr), but no differences were observed for comparisons within individual bedding-material types. Collectively, these results generally favored use of sand-bedding materials over systems using OS.

Dairy Farmers' Perceptions of and Actions in Relation to Lameness Management

Simple Summary

Lameness is a pressing issue in dairy production. Dairy farmers are primarily responsible for the welfare of their cows and decision-making regarding lameness management. However, there are concerns regarding the communication of the importance of lameness to farmers and their motivation towards proper management. A review of the literature indicates that various factors influence farmers’ perceptions about lameness, their adoption of recommended measures and whether or not they end up treating a lame cow. This review summarizes these related issues in consideration of the welfare and economic implications of farmers’ decisions. The information herein is vital to the identification of measures on how to motivate dairy farmers towards appropriate lameness management.

Abstract

Lameness continues to be a welfare and economic issue for dairy cows. However, the consequences of lameness seem to be better understood by veterinarians and related personnel in comparison to dairy farmers. Prompt detection and treatment of lame cows is essential in reducing its negative impact on milk processing systems. To that end, understanding farmers’ perceptions regarding the significance of lameness to dairy cows is vital. One fundamental aspect is the underestimation of lameness prevalence by dairy farmers, which is as a result of different understanding of the problem. The same applies to their decision to treat lame cows and to adopt various detection and management practices. All of these shortcomings contribute to poor cattle welfare and economic losses in dairy production. This review summarizes the results of studies that have investigated dairy farmers’ perceptions of lameness and the associated implications on the wellbeing and productivity of dairy cows. Factors associated with farmers’ attitudes toward claw health and lameness management are also presented. Additionally, economic observations relating to lameness prevention, treatment and the adoption of lameness detection systems are also highlighted. To strengthen these points, interventional programmes requiring farmers’ participation are discussed as a promising approach in answering some of these challenges. A review of the literature indicates both the opportunities and barriers inherent in the tackling the lameness issue from the farmers’ perspectives. Such knowledge is crucial in identifying measures on how to motivate dairy farmers towards proper lameness management.

Lameness and lying behavior in grazing dairy cows

Lameness is a serious welfare issue for dairy cows. To date, the majority of studies have focused on its effect on health and behavior at the herd level. The objectives of this study were to identify (1) between-cow and (2) within-cow changes in lying behavior associated with consistent and changing lameness status in grazing dairy cows. Previous studies of lying behavior in grazing dairy cows have not considered the effect of precipitation, so a third aim was to determine the effect of precipitation on lying behavior. A total of 252 dairy cows from 6 pasture-based farms in southern Brazil were gait scored weekly to assess lameness using a 5-point scale [1-5, numerical rating score (NRS)] for 4 consecutive weeks. Cows were considered to have consistent lameness if they were scored as lame (NRS ≥3) on each of the 4 visits and considered to have a changing lameness status if scored as being nonlame (NRS <3) on at least 1 of the 4 visits. Cows classified as having a changing lameness status were further classified as developed, recovered, or inconsistent. Lying behavior (daily lying time, mean lying bout duration, and daily number of lying bouts) was recorded continuously for 3 wk using leg-mounted accelerometers. Cow-level variables included parity, days in milk, and body condition score. Regional precipitation and temperature were recorded hourly. Because only 1 primiparous cow was identified as lame at each of the 4 visits, the between-cow analysis of lameness was run on multiparous cows only. The overall prevalence of clinical lameness on the first visit was 39%, with development and recovery rates of 16 and 10% over the 4 visits, respectively. The between-cow effect of consistent lameness status on daily lying time and number of lying bouts was dependent on precipitation; consistently lame cows had reduced lying time and lying bouts on days with rain compared with days without rain. There was no within-cow effect of changing lameness status on any of the lying behaviors. Precipitation was associated with decreased daily lying time, increased mean lying bout duration, and decreased daily number of lying bouts. The results of this research provide the first evidence that the effect of consistent lameness status on lying behavior is associated with rainfall in grazing dairy cows. Future work measuring lying behavior of grazing dairy cows should include precipitation as a covariate.

Effects of transdermal flunixin meglumine on experimentally induced lameness in adult dairy cattle

Lameness is a common animal health condition with significant production and welfare implications. The transdermal formulation of flunixin meglumine is the only approved drug for pain control in cattle in the United States. Thirty adult dairy cows were enrolled in a study to determine the effect of transdermal flunixin on cattle with induced lameness. Cows were allocated to 1 of 3 treatment groups, with 10 cows per group: lameness and flunixin (L+F), lameness and placebo (L+P), or sham induction and placebo (S+P). An arthritis-synovitis was induced in the distal interphalangeal joint of the left hind lateral digit, using 20 mg of amphotericin B, 6 h before the application of treatment. Cows enrolled into the sham induction group had 4 mL of isotonic saline injected into the joint. Cows were dosed with transdermal flunixin at 3.33 mg/kg (1 mL/15 kg), or a placebo at 1 mL/15 kg, every 24 h for 3 d. The first treatment of flunixin or placebo was considered the start of the study, identified as time 0 h. Data were collected from all cows for 120 h following the initial treatment application. Outcome measures included plasma cortisol; substance P; visual lameness assessment; mechanical nociception threshold (MNT), presented as difference between left and right feet; infrared thermography (IRT), presented as difference between left and right feet; and gait analysis using a pressure mat. Cortisol concentrations were lower for the L+F group starting at 1.5 h after drug administration. Substance P levels showed no evidence for treatment differences among groups. Differences between the left hind MNT and right hind MNT were detected, with S+P having the lowest difference at -0.04 kilograms-force (kgf; 95% CI: -1.86 to 1.78 kgf), and L+P having the highest at -2.96 kgf (95% CI: 1.55 to 4.36 kgf). The L+F group was intermediate at -2.08 kgf (95% CI: 0.89 to 3.27 kgf). Similarly, when the difference between the maximum temperatures of the coronary band were examined via IRT, the L+P group had the highest difference at 1.64°C (95% CI: 1.02 to 2.26°C), with the L+F and S+P groups measuring 0.57°C (95% CI: 0.06 to 1.08°C) and 0.53°C (95% CI: -0.2 to 1.25°C) respectively. We found no evidence for differences among treatment groups when analyzing force, contact pressure, step impulse, or stride length. Based on differences in MNT, IRT, and cortisol, transdermal flunixin is an effective analgesic agent for induced lameness. Multiple doses of transdermal flunixin may be required to be clinically effective, based on MNT and IRT data. Further investigation of transdermal flunixin and its analgesic effects is warranted in naturally occurring lameness.

Estimating the value of infectious or noninfectious foot disorder prevention strategies within dairy farms, as influenced by foot disorder incidence rates and prevention effectiveness

A farm-level stochastic simulation model was adapted to estimate the value of implementing foot disorder prevention on a dairy farm by calculating the return on investment associated with implementation of foot disorder prevention. Two potential strategies for foot disorder prevention were tested: strategy 1 was prevention focused on reducing infectious foot disorders (i.e., digital dermatitis) in the model, and strategy 2 was prevention focused on reducing noninfectious foot disorders (i.e., sole ulcer and white line disease) in the model. For each strategy, we evaluated the effect of foot disorder incidence on the value of prevention by setting the incidence of foot disorders at 3 levels. For strategy 1, the level of digital dermatitis incidence without prevention in all parities was 20, 40, or 60%, and the incidence level of the noninfectious foot disorders in the model were held constant. For strategy 2, levels of sole ulcer and white line disease incidence without prevention in parity ≥3 cows were 5, 15, or 25%, and the incidence level of the infectious foot disorders included in the model were held constant; the incidence levels of noninfectious foot disorders in younger cows were adjusted to be lower. Overall, 6 scenarios were run, 1 for each prevention strategy × foot disorder incidence rate combination. To evaluate how the effectiveness of each prevention strategy would influence the investment value, the effectiveness of prevention could vary from a prevention risk ratio (RR) of 0.0 (100% reduction in disorder incidence) to 1.0 (0% reduction in disorder incidence). When implementing strategy 1, the return on prevention investment per cow-year (mean ± standard deviation) when prevention effectiveness was low (prevention RR = 0.91 to 1.0) and the digital dermatitis incidence rate was originally 20, 40, or 60% was $0.6 ± 0.4, $1.2 ± 0.9, and $1.8 ± 1.3, respectively. In comparison, the return on prevention investment per cow-year when prevention effectiveness was high (prevention RR = 0.00 to 0.09) and the digital dermatitis incidence rate was originally 20, 40, or 60% was $12.2 ± 3.0, $24.4 ± 6.0, and $36.5 ± 9.0, respectively. When implementing strategy 2, the return on prevention investment per cow-year when prevention effectiveness was low and noninfectious foot disorder incidence rates were originally 5, 15, or 25% in parity ≥3 cows was $0.6 ± 0.4, $1.9 ± 1.1, and $3.2 ± 1.9, respectively. In comparison, the return on prevention investment per cow-year when prevention effectiveness was high and noninfectious foot disorder incidence rates were originally 5, 15, or 25% in parity ≥3 cows was $12.4 ± 1.5, $37.3 ± 4.6, and $62.2 ± 7.6, respectively. The return on investment for foot disorder prevention would depend on the cost of the prevention strategy and the other benefits associated with the selected prevention strategy. This model could be used as a decision support tool to help identify the amount that could be paid to implement a selected prevention strategy.

A survey of United States dairy hoof care professionals on costs associated with treatment of foot disorders

The objective of this study was to collect information regarding hoof care professionals' billing practices and to gather their opinions about foot disorders and the value of their prevention. Responses were gathered from veterinarians (n = 18) and hoof trimmers (n = 116) through both online and paper survey platforms. Because of the limited number of respondents, veterinarian responses were not further analyzed. Of the 6 foot disorders included in the survey, the treatment cost per case was greatest for toe ulcers (mean ± standard deviation; $20.2 ± 8.5), sole ulcers ($19.7 ± 8.6), white line disease ($19.5 ± 8.1), and thin soles ($18.1 ± 8.1), and least for infectious disorders (foot rot and digital dermatitis; $8.0 ± 7.6 and $7.5 ± 9.6, respectively). Of the disorders, digital dermatitis represented most of the foot disorder cases treated by respondents over the past year (43.9 ± 20.4%), whereas toe ulcers and thin soles represented the least (5.3 ± 4.1 and 5.3 ± 5.7%, respectively). Respondents that served mostly large herds (>500 lactating cows) reported a lower prevalence of digital dermatitis (31.6 ± 4.2 vs. 44.4 ± 3.4 and 46.7 ± 3.2% in small and medium herds, respectively) and a higher prevalence of sole ulcers (23.1 ± 3.0 vs. 13.4 ± 2.4 and 13.3 ± 2.3% in small and medium herds, respectively). Region of the United States (Northeast, Midwest, or other) also influenced foot disorder prevalence; respondents from the Northeast reported more sole ulcers than respondents from other regions (22.1 ± 2.3 vs. 12.4 ± 3.3%). When respondents were asked which disorder was associated with the greatest total cost per case to the producer (treatment and labor costs plus the reduction in milk yield, reduced reproductive performance, and so on), hoof trimmers ranked digital dermatitis as having the greatest total cost per case and thin soles as having the least total cost per case. Finally, respondents indicated that the most important benefits of reducing foot disorders were enhanced animal welfare and increased milk production, whereas the least important benefit was reduced veterinary and hoof trimmer fees. Results from this survey can be used to improve the accuracy of foot disorder cost estimates and contribute to better decision-making regarding both foot disorder treatment and prevention.