Effects of ad libitum milk replacer feeding and butyrate supplementation on the epithelial growth and development of the gastrointestinal tract in Holstein calves

A Comprehensive Review of Bovine Colostrum Components and Selected Aspects Regarding Their Impact on Neonatal Calf Physiology

Colostrum contains macro- and micronutrients necessary to meet the nutritional and energy requirements of the neonatal calf, bioactive components that intervene in several physiological aspects, and cells and microorganisms that modulate the calf's immune system and gut microbiome. Colostrum is sometimes mistaken as transition milk, which, although more nutritive than whole milk, has a distinct biochemical composition. Furthermore, most research about colostrum quality and colostrum management focuses on the transfer of maternal IgG to the newborn calf. The remaining components of colostrum and transition milk have not received the same attention, despite their importance to the newborn animal. In this narrative review, a large body of literature on the components of bovine colostrum was reviewed. The variability of these components was summarized, emphasizing specific components that warrant deeper exploration. In addition, the effects of each component present in colostrum and transition milk on several key physiological aspects of the newborn calf are discussed.

Campos M. Effects of Supplementing Milk Replacer with Sodium Butyrate on Dairy Calves

Diarrhea and respiratory diseases pose significant challenges in the rearing of pre-weaned calves, motivating the investigation of tools to improve gastrointestinal tract development, health, and overall performance in young calves. Consequently, the primary objective of this study was to assess the effectiveness of an additive incorporated into milk replacer to promote the development and health of the animals. Forty-six dairy calves were randomly assigned into two treatments: control (CON, n = 23; with 15 females and 8 males), and sodium butyrate (SB, n = 23; with 15 females and 8 males). The calves in the SB treatment group were supplemented with 4 g/d of unprotected sodium butyrate (Adimix, Adisseo, China), added to the milk replacer from 4 to 60 days of age. Water and starter were fed ad libitum. The study evaluated several parameters, including feed intake, nutrient digestibility, ruminal pH, ammonia and volatile fatty acids, blood metabolites (glucose, insulin-like growth factor type 1, urea, β-hydroxybutyrate), hemogram, health scores, performance, and feed efficiency. Bull calves were euthanized at 60 days of age for organ comparison, while heifer calves were assessed for carryover effects up to 90 days of age. Data were analyzed independently using linear mixed models using the nlme package in R, and the Artools package for non-parametric categorical outcomes. Although the feed intake and performance variables exhibited differences within weeks, no divergence was observed between treatment groups. Notably, a positive treatment-by-week interaction was identified for starter feed intake (p = 0.02) and total dry matter intake (p = 0.04) during pre-weaning for CON animals. Ruminal parameters, blood metabolites, and hemogram values such as glucose, urea, insulin-like growth factor type 1, mean corpuscular value, lymphocytes, and neutrophils displayed differences within weeks during the pre-weaning stage, but similar results within groups. No differences between supplemented and non-supplemented calves were found across nutrient digestibility, organ development, and histology. Regarding health scores, differences were noted within weeks for fecal and respiratory scores during the pre-weaning stage, and only the respiratory score during the post-weaning stage. Consequently, butyrate supplementation did not elicit improvements or negative effects in the body development or health status of dairy calves.

Sodium butyrate administration improves intestinal development of suckling lambs

This study was conducted to investigate the effects of sodium butyrate (SB) supplementation on growth performance, intestinal barrier functions, and intestinal bacterial communities in sucking lambs. Forty lambs of 7 d old, with an average body weight (BW) of 4.46 ± 0.45 kg, were allocated into the control (CON) or SB group, with each group having five replicate pens (n = 5). Lambs were orally administered SB at 1.8 mL/kg BW in the SB group or the same volume of saline in the CON group. Treatments were administered from 7 to 35 d of age, when one lamb from each replicate was slaughtered to obtain intestinal tissues and contents. The results showed that supplementation with SB tended to increase the BW (P = 0.079) and the starter intake (P = 0.089) of lambs at 35 d of age. The average daily gain of lambs in the SB group was significantly greater than that in the CON group (P < 0.05). The villus height of jejunum in the SB group was markedly higher (P < 0.05) than that in the CON group. In ileum, lambs in the SB group had lower (P < 0.05) crypt depth and greater (P < 0.05) villus-to-crypt ratio than those in the CON group. Compared with the CON group, the mRNA and protein expressions of Claudin-1 and Occludin were increased (P < 0.05) in the SB group. Supplementation with SB decreased the relative abundances of pathogenic bacteria, including Clostridia_UCG-014 (P = 0.094) and Romboutsia (P < 0.05), which were negatively associated with the intestinal barrier function genes (P < 0.05). The relative abundance of Succiniclasticum (P < 0.05) was higher in the SB group, and it was positively correlated with the ratio of villi height to crypt depth in the jejunum (P < 0.05). Compared with the CON group, the function "Metabolism of Cofactors and Vitamins" was increased in the SB group lambs (P < 0.05). In conclusion, SB orally administration during suckling period could improve the small intestine development and growth performance of lambs by inhibiting the harmful bacteria (Clostridia_UCG-014, Romboutsia) colonization, and enhancing intestinal barrier functions.

The roles of short-chain fatty acids derived from colonic bacteria fermentation of non-digestible carbohydrates and exogenous forms in ameliorating intestinal mucosal immunity of young ruminants

Short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) are a class of organic fatty acids that consist of 1 to 6 carbons in length. They are primary end-products which arise from non-digestible carbohydrates (NDC) fermentation of colonic bacteria. They are the fundamental energy sources for post-weaning ruminants. SCFA represent the major carbon flux of diet through the gut microbiota to the host. They also play a vital role in regulating cell expansion and gene expression of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). Recently, remarkable progresses have been made in understanding the immunomodulatory effects of SCFA and their interactions with the host. The processes involved in this study encompassed inflammasome activation, proliferation of lymphocytes, and maturation of intestinal mucosal immunity maturation. It is important to note that the establishment and maturation of intestinal mucosal immune system are intricately connected to the barrier function of intestinal epithelial cells (IEC) and the homeostasis of gut microbiota. Thus, insights into the role of SCFA in enteric mucosal immunoreaction of calves will enhance our understanding of their various regulatory functions. This review aims to analyze recent evidence on the role of SCFA as essential signaling molecules between gut microbiota and animal health. Additionally, we provide a summary of current literature on SCFA in intestinal mucosal immune responses of dairy calves.

Butyrate supplementation in the liquid diet of dairy calves leads to a rapid recovery from diarrhea and reduces its occurrence and relapses in the preweaning period

The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of continuous butyrate administration in dairy calves' liquid diet considering diarrhea, metabolic profile, gastrointestinal development, and corporal growth. Immediately after birth, calves were randomly allocated into 2 groups of 62 calves (50 females and 12 males), with access to water and a solid feed ad libitum. The butyrate group (BG) received 4 g/d of sodium butyrate (Admix Easy, Adisseo) diluted in the whole milk, and the control group (CG) received whole milk with no supplementation. Sodium butyrate was administered from d 1 of life until the weaning at 90 d. Feces consistency was assessed daily for the first 30 d of life and characterized by scores from 0 to 4 (0 and 1 for normal, and 2, 3, and 4 for abnormal feces). Diarrhea was diagnosed when the animals had abnormal feces and fever. Morbidity, recurrence, mortality, and lethality data were recorded and compared between the groups. Average daily gain (ADG) and corporal growth (body weight, thoracic perimeter, height at the withers, and croup width) were evaluated weekly, from the first day to d 30, and later at 45, 60, and 90 d of life. Blood samples were taken weekly for up to 30 d to determine the circulating levels of total calcium, phosphorus, chloride, bicarbonate, glucose, β-hydroxybutyrate, and nonesterified fatty acids. The males were euthanized at 15 (n = 6 per group) and 30 d (n = 6 per group) for morphometric, histological, and gene expression analysis of the gastrointestinal tract. The results showed that the BG had a lower rate of morbidity (BG = 30% vs. CG = 50%) and recurrence (BG = 26.7% vs. CG = 60%) of diarrhea than the CG. In addition, the BG had abnormal feces for a shorter period (BG = 4.64 ± 0.47 d vs. CG = 8.6 ± 0.65 d). The ADG tended to be higher in BG than CG up to 30 and 60 d. Metabolic evaluations showed the lowest levels of glucose and highest levels of nonesterified fatty acids in BG. On d 30 of life, rumen papillae length, papilla area, duodenum villus length, and crypt depth were higher in BG than in CG. The duodenal gene expression at 30 d showed that animals with diarrhea episodes that did not receive butyrate had the highest levels of transcripts for the LCT and GLP2 genes. In addition, in different ways, both butyrate and neonatal diarrhea affected the gene expression of IGF1, SLC5A1, and AQP3. These results allow us to conclude that continuous supplementation with sodium butyrate improves gastrointestinal development, reduces the occurrence of diarrhea, and makes clinical conditions milder with faster recovery, favoring a higher ADG in the first 30 and 60 d of life. Based on these results, we conclude that sodium butyrate can be indicated for liquid diet supplementation to accelerate gastrointestinal tract development and prevent severe cases of neonatal diarrhea, tending to improve average daily gain until weaning.

Dairy farmer and farm staff attitudes and perceptions regarding daily milk allowance to calves

The benefits of feeding calves more milk are increasingly being recognized by dairy farmers. However, most producers have still not implemented higher feeding plans. The aim of the present study was to gain a deeper understanding of farmer and farm staff attitudes, and the perceptions and factors considered in their decision-making regarding daily milk allowances. We collected data through focus group interviews with dairy farmers, farm managers, and calf-care workers who were selected using purposive and snowball sampling. In total, 40 persons (24 women and 16 men) joined a focus group interview (6 in all, each with 5-8 participants). Interviews were recorded, and recordings were transcribed and analyzed thematically. Participants had contrasting opinions about the minimum, maximum, and recommended daily milk allowances to their calves. Their suggested lowest daily milk allowance to sustain animal welfare ranged from 4 to 8-10 L and the maximum allowance from 6 to 15 L. We found that farmers' and farm staff's choices and recommendations of milk-feeding protocols were influenced by a large number of factors that could be grouped into 4 themes: (1) Life beyond work, (2) Farm facilities and equipment, (3) Care of the calves, and (4) Profitability and production. Participants' considerations were similar and aimed to maximize daily milk allowance based on farm conditions. However, the allowances they described as optimal for their calves often differed from what they considered practically feasible. We found that the care of the calves and the well-being of the owners and the staff was central in the participants' decision-making, but that this care perspective was challenged by the social and economic sustainability of the farm. Most participants fed their calves twice daily and did not think that increasing that number would be practically feasible. Our results indicate that the participants' viewpoints regarding calves were important for their decision-making about milk allowances. We suggest that a more holistic perspective should be used when advising farmers about milk allowances, putting particular emphasis on the caring and social sustainability aspects of the individual farm.

Butyrate's role in human health and the current progress towards its clinical application to treat gastrointestinal disease

Butyrate is a key energy source for colonocytes and is produced by the gut microbiota through fermentation of dietary fiber. Butyrate is a histone deacetylase inhibitor and also signals through three G-protein coupled receptors. It is clear that butyrate has an important role in gastrointestinal health and that butyrate levels can impact both host and microbial functions that are intimately coupled with each other. Maintaining optimal butyrate levels improves gastrointestinal health in animal models by supporting colonocyte function, decreasing inflammation, maintaining the gut barrier, and promoting a healthy microbiome. Butyrate has also shown protective actions in the context of intestinal diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease, graft-versus-host disease of the gastrointestinal tract, and colon cancer, whereas lower levels of butyrate and/or the microbes which are responsible for producing this metabolite are associated with disease and poorer health outcomes. However, clinical efforts to increase butyrate levels in humans and reverse these negative outcomes have generated mixed results. This article discusses our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms of butyrate action with a focus on the gastrointestinal system, the links between host and microbial factors, and the efforts that are currently underway to apply the knowledge gained from the bench to bedside.

Effects of rumen cannulation combined with different pre-weaning feeding intensities on the intestinal, splenic and thymic immune system in heifer calves several month after surgery

Fistulation is a helpful procedure in animal nutritional research and also common practise in human medicine. However, there are indications that alterations in the upper gastrointestinal tract contribute to intestinal immune modulations. The present study aimed to investigate effects of a rumen cannulation in week 3 of life on the intestinal and tissue specific immune system of 34-week old heifers. Nutrition influences the development of the neonatal intestinal immune system to a high extent. Therefore, rumen cannulation was investigated in combination with different pre-weaning milk feeding intensities (20% (20MR) vs. 10% milk replacer feeding (10MR). Heifers of 20MR without rumen cannula (NRC) showed higher cluster of differentiation (CD)8⁺ T cell subsets in mesenteric lymph nodes (MSL) compared to heifers with rumen cannula (RC) and 10MRNRC heifers. CD4⁺ T cell subsets in jejunal intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs) were higher in 10MRNRC heifers compared to 10MRRC heifers. CD4⁺ T cell subsets in ileal IELs were lower and CD21⁺ B cell subsets were higher in NRC heifers compared to RC heifers. CD8⁺ T cell subsets in spleen tended to be lower in 20MRNRC heifers compared to all other groups. Splenic CD21⁺ B cell subsets were higher in 20MRNRC heifers compared to RC heifers. Splenic toll like receptor (TLR) 6 expression was increased and IL4 expression tended to be increased in RC heifers than NRC heifers. Splenic TLR2, 3 and 10 gene expression was higher in 20MR compared to 10MR heifers. Jejunal prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase 2 expression was higher in RC heifers than NRC heifers, and MUC2 expression tended to increase in 20MR heifers compared to 10MR heifers. In conclusion, rumen cannulation modulated T and B cell subsets in the down streaming gastrointestinal tract and spleen. Pre-weaning feeding intensity seemed to affect intestinal mucin secretion and T and B cell subsets in MSL, spleen and thymus until several month later. Interestingly, in MSL, spleen and thymus the 10MR feeding regime evoked similar modulations of T and B cell subsets like rumen cannulation.

Welfare implications on management strategies for rearing dairy calves: A systematic review. Part 1-feeding management

Introduction

Calves are very susceptible to stress in the early stages of life, and it is necessary to ensure maximum welfare. Feeding management has been identified as a major risk factor for calf health and welfare at this stage. However, the management protocol for calf rearing and its impact on animal welfare is unclear. A systematic review of different management strategies for rearing dairy calves according to the three spheres of animal welfare was conducted using an electronic search strategy. In this review, management strategies were studied to identify scientific gaps, to know the welfare problems of these animals in order to prioritize actions and future research and to study the interpretive approach of this management from the three welfare spheres.

Methods

A protocol was used to analyze and extract information from the studies. Of the 1,783 publications screened, only 351 met the inclusion criteria for the management or welfare of calves' items.

Results

The publications identified in the search can be divided into two main groups feeding and socialization, based on the main topic of the publication. The main topics that emerged from the search in the feeding management group were milk replacer, colostrum, and weaning, divided into the three main areas of biological functioning and health, natural life and affective states or cognitive judgement.

Discussion

The main issues to be addressed were the different types of feed consumed by animals from birth to weaning and the weaning management. It has been found that the most researched issues are colostrum and solid starter feed management. Unresolved issues were highlighted, such as the lack of a clear protocol for the administration of milk replacers to reduce hunger and the best management of weaning to reduce stress.

Phenotypical Variation of Ruminal Volatile Fatty Acids and pH during the Peri-Weaning Period in Holstein Calves and Factors Affecting Them

Two hundred and forty-three clinically healthy Holstein calves from eight commercial dairy farms were used to: (a) describe the evolutionary course of ruminal VFA concentration and pH during the peri-weaning period and (b) assess management factors affecting their phenotypical variation of these parameters. Management practices were recorded individually for each calf as these were not fixed within farms. Samples of ruminal fluid were collected at -7 d, 0 d, and 7 d relative to weaning. Gas chromatography was used to measure ruminal VFAs, and pH was measured on site. Linear mixed models for repeated measurements were used to assess the effects of management factors and their interactions. A large among-calves phenotypical variability was observed. Estimated marginal means showed that concentrations of acetate, butyrate, and total VFAs (but not of propionate) significantly decreased, while acetate propionate increased, from -7 d to 7 d. Age at weaning and body weight at -7 d were positively associated with total and several individual VFA concentrations. Group housing and late forage feeding pre-weaning were associated with higher VFA concentrations; the same factors, as well as step-weaning, were associated with pH values around 6. Feeding 7-8 L of milk replacer daily did not preclude a smooth transition, irrespective of weaning method.

Tolerability and SCFA production after resistant starch supplementation in humans: a systematic review of randomized controlled studies

BACKGROUND

Resistant starches (RSs) have been advocated as a dietary supplement to address microbiota dysbiosis. They are postulated to act through the production of SCFAs. Their clinical tolerability and effect on SCFA production has not been systematically evaluated.

OBJECTIVES

We conducted a systematic review of RS supplementation as an intervention in adults (healthy individuals and persons with medical conditions) participating in randomized controlled trials. The primary outcome was tolerability of RS supplementation, the secondary outcome was SCFA production.

METHODS

MEDLINE, Embase, and the Cochrane Central Register were searched. Articles were screened, and data extracted, independently and in duplicate.

RESULTS

A total of 39 trials met eligibility criteria, including a total of 2263 patients. Twenty-seven (69%) studies evaluated the impact of RS supplementation in healthy subjects whereas 12 (31%) studies included individuals with an underlying medical condition (e.g., obesity, prediabetes). Type 2 RS was most frequently investigated (29 studies). Of 12 studies performed in subjects with health conditions, 11 reported on tolerability. All studies showed that RS supplementation was tolerated; 9 of these studies used type 2 RS with doses of 20-40 g/d for >4 wk. Of 27 studies performed in healthy subjects, 20 reported on tolerability. In 14 studies, RS supplementation was tolerated, and the majority used type 2 RS with a dose between 20 and 40 g/d. Twenty-one (78%) studies reporting SCFAs used type 2 RS with a dose of 20-40 g/d for 1-4 wk. In 16 of 23 studies (70%), SCFA production was increased, in 7 studies there was no change in SCFA concentration before and after RS supplementation, and in 1 study SCFA concentration decreased.

CONCLUSIONS

Available evidence suggests that RS supplementation is tolerated in both healthy subjects and in those with an underlying medical condition. In addition, SCFA production was increased in most of the studies.

Tributyrin supplementation in pasteurized waste milk: Effects on growth performance, health, and blood parameters of dairy calves

This study evaluated the effects of incremental tributyrin supplementation in pasteurized waste milk on growth performance, health, and blood metabolism of dairy calves before and after weaning. Forty-eight newborn female Holstein dairy calves (39.6 ± 2.75 kg; mean ± standard deviation) were blocked by age and randomly assigned to 3 treatments: pasteurized waste milk (1) without supplementation, (2) with 1 g/L of tributyrin products (unprotected solid powder; containing 35% tributyrin), or (3) with 2 g/L of tributyrin products. The calves were weaned on d 56 and were raised until d 77. Data were analyzed for the preweaning, postweaning, and overall periods. The results showed that starter intake and hay intake were not different among treatments in any period of the trial, but the crude protein intake tended to increase linearly with tributyrin supplementation during the overall period. Although tributyrin supplementation had no effects on body weight during preweaning and overall periods, body weight increased linearly with tributyrin supplementation postweaning. The average daily gain tended to increase linearly during postweaning and overall periods. No effects were observed on feed efficiency in any period. A positive linear relationship between body length and tributyrin supplementation was observed during the postweaning period, but no differences were found for the other body structural measurements in any period. The results of diarrhea showed that tributyrin concentration had a negative linear relationship with diarrhea frequency during preweaning and overall periods. The rectal temperature did not differ among treatments in any period, but a treatment × week effect for rectal body temperature was observed. For blood metabolism, tributyrin supplementation had no effects on insulin, growth hormone, total protein, albumin, or globulin. No differences were found in serum amyloid A concentration in any of the periods, yet haptoglobin concentration decreased linearly with increasing tributyrin concentration during postweaning and overall periods. Endothelin concentration showed a tendency to decrease linearly during preweaning and postweaning periods and decreased linearly with tributyrin supplementation during the overall period. An increasing tributyrin concentration was associated with a negative linear relationship with IL-1β concentration during the preweaning period, and no differences were found in the other periods. The concentration of IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor α were not different among treatments in any of the periods. These data suggest that increasing the concentration of tributyrin in pasteurized waste milk could increase growth performance and health of dairy calves, and incremental tributyrin supplementation could linearly reduce haptoglobin, endothelin, and IL-1β concentrations, indicating a positive effect of tributyrin on alleviating oxidative stress and inflammatory status of dairy calves. Calves fed pasteurized waste milk supplemented with tributyrin products (containing 35% tributyrin) at 2 g/L compared with 1 g/L of milk had more improved growth and health.

Effects of different planes of milk feeding and milk total solids concentration on growth, ruminal fermentation, health, and behavior of late weaned dairy calves during summer

Background

In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in using high quantities of milk or milk replacer (MR) in heat-stressed calves to alleviate the negative effects of high environmental temperatures on their performance. However, observations have indicated a decline in growth performance in the weaning and post-weaning period, which might be optimized with increasing total solids (TS) in milk and weaning age. This study aims to optimize the effects of higher quantities of milk on late weaned calves' performance by increasing TS concentration or delivery route in summer conditions.

Method

Forty-eight newborn Holstein calves were used in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement with the factors of pre-weaning total plane of milk (PM) intake (low vs. high) and milk TS content (12% vs. 17%). The treatments were (1) low PM (LPM) intake with 12% TS (TS intake = 45.9 kg), (2) LPM intake with 17% TS (TS intake = 65.1 kg), (3) high PM (HPM) intake with 12% TS (TS intake = 63.7 kg); and (4) HPM intake with 17% TS (TS intake = 90.3 kg). Calves were weaned at d 83, and the study was terminated at d 103 of age. Performance data (every 10 day), skeletal growth (d 80 and 100), ruminal fermentation parameters (d 48 and 91), and behavioral measurements (d 69, 70, 93 and 94) were analyzed as repeated measurements with PROC MIXED of SAS 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC).

Results

Calves receiving HPM consumed less PMR from d 44 to 83 of age, but they had higher ADG from d 24 to 53 of age compared to those fed LPM (PM × age, P < 0.001). In addition, calves receiving milk with 17% TS had lower PMR intake from d 14 to 83 of age, but greater ADG from d 34 to 53 compared to those receiving milk with 12% TS (TS × age, P < 0.001). Calves that received HPM had greater skeletal growth parameters compared to LPM-fed calves, with a similar effect evident for calves fed milk with 17% TS compared with those fed milk with 12% TS. Calves receiving milk with 17% TS had greater fecal scores and diarrhea occurrence than those fed milk with 12% TS in HPM, but not LPM.

Conclusions

Increasing PM and milk TS concentration improved growth in summer-exposed calves as demonstrated by increased pre-weaning ADG, pre- and post-weaning BW, and structural growth.

Analysis of Host Jejunum Transcriptome and Associated Microbial Community Structure Variation in Young Calves with Feed-Induced Acidosis

Diet-induced acidosis imposes a health risk to young calves. In this study, we aimed to investigate the host jejunum transcriptome changes, along with its microbial community variations, using our established model of feed-induced ruminal acidosis in young calves. Eight bull calves were randomly assigned to two diet treatments beginning at birth (a starch-rich diet, Aci; a control diet, Con). Whole-transcriptome RNA sequencing was performed on the jejunum tissues collected at 17 weeks of age. Ribosomal RNA reads were used for studying microbial community structure variations in the jejunum. A total of 853 differentially expressed genes were identified (402 upregulated and 451 downregulated) between the two groups. The cell cycle and the digestion and absorption of protein in jejunal tissue were affected by acidosis. Compared to the control, genera of Campylobacter, Burkholderia, Acidaminococcus, Corynebacterium, and Olsenella significantly increased in abundance in the Aci group, while Lachnoclostridium and Ruminococcus were significantly lower in the Aci group. Expression changes in the AXL gene were associated with the abundance variations of a high number of genera in jejunum. Our study provided a snapshot of the transcriptome changes in the jejunum and its associated meta-transcriptome changes in microbial communities in young calves with feed-induced acidosis.

Effects of milk replacer meal size on feed intake, growth performance, and blood metabolites and hormones of calves fed milk replacer with or without butyrate ad libitum: A cluster-analytic approach

This study intended to classify ad libitum-fed calves according to their milk replacer (MR) meal size using the K-means clustering approach. This study aimed to investigate the effects of MR meal size on feed intake, growth performance, and blood metabolic and hormones of ad libitum MR-fed calves. German Holstein calves (16 male and 16 female) were studied from birth until d 77 of age. All calves received first colostrum (2.5 kg) milked from their dams within 2 h after birth. Subsequent colostrum meals (subsequent 4 meals until 2.5 d of age; 2 meals/d) and MR (125 g of powder/L; 21.7% crude protein, 18.6% crude fat) were fed ad libitum by teat bucket until d 10 ± 2 of age. Afterward, calves were housed in group pens with automatic feeders for MR (maximum of 25 L/d) and concentrate from 10 ± 3 d of age. Half of the calves received MR supplemented with butyrate to improve growth performance. Milk intake was stepped down to 2 L/d from wk 9 to 10, and 2 L/d of MR were offered until the end of the study. On d 1, 2, 4, and 7, and then weekly until wk 11 of age, blood samples were collected for measurement of metabolites and hormones related to energy metabolism and growth. The K-means cluster analysis on the MR meal size data collected from the automatic feeder resulted in 3 clusters (n = 14, n = 12, and n = 6). Two clusters with a sufficient cluster size (n = 14 and n = 12) were included for further statistical analysis using repeated measures mixed-model ANOVA. In both clusters, butyrate supplementation was equally distributed and failed to affect a difference in MR meal size. Cluster 1 showed calves with higher MR meal size (HI; 2.2 ± 0.11 L/visit of MR) and cluster 2 with lower meal size (LO; 1.8 ± 0.07 L/visit of MR) supplemented MR without (HIB-; n = 6; LOB-, n = 7) or with 0.33% calcium-sodium butyrate (HIB+; n = 6; LOB+, n = 7). Dry matter intake of MR did not differ between HI and LO, but intakes of concentrate and total dry matter tended to be greater in HI than in LO and increased more distinctly in HI than in LO at the end of the study. The average daily gain (g/d) was greater in HI than in LO. Plasma concentrations of total protein (g/L), albumin (g/L), glucose (mmol/L), urea (mmol/L), insulin (µg/L), and glucagon (ng/L) were higher, and the concentrations of insulin-like growth factor I tended to be higher, in HI than in LO calves. Plasma β-hydroxybutyrate was higher in LO than in HI at d 63 and lower in calves fed MR with butyrate at d 77. In conclusion, clustering analysis discriminates 2 main groups of calves with different MR meal size and indicates an effect of MR meal size on solid feed intake, growth performance, and metabolic changes.

Increasing preweaning milk replacer supply affects postweaning energy metabolism of Holstein male calves

Male Holstein calves commonly receive minimal quantities of milk replacer (MR) to speed up weaning and reduce costs. Studies with Holstein female calves show that early life feed restriction affects energy metabolism later in life. Aiming to test this hypothesis, 120 Holstein bull calves (48.4 ± 2.2 kg of BW and 20 ± 3.2 d of age) housed in 24 pens were blocked and randomized to two treatments: A low calf MR allowance (LP) (two daily doses of 2 l each, 582 g/d of DM), or a high MR allowance (HP) (two daily meals of 4 l each, 1164 g/d of DM). Calves were weaned at day 49 of the study and slaughtered at 32.8 ± 0.5 weeks of age. Throughout the study, animals had ad libitum access to a common compound feed, straw, and water. Twenty-four animals were randomly selected for an intravenous glucose tolerance test (IVGTT). The IVGTT was performed at week 6 and 12 of the study and consisted of an intravenous glucose infusion and sequential blood sampling up to 90 min after glucose infusions. Calves were heavier for HP until week 12, after which the difference disappeared. By design, the MR intake was higher in the HP group resulting in a higher energy intake and a higher average daily gain in the preweaning phase. Blood glucose curves were not different at week 6, but at week 12, 5 min after the infusion, glucose was higher in HP calves. Insulin curves were not different at week 6. Nevertheless, in week 12, a higher insulin concentration was observed for HP 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 35, and 45 min' postinfusion, indicating a higher requirement of insulin to control glycemia. Differences between HP and LP calves were also observed for the quantitative insulin sensitivity check index, maximum insulin concentration, and insulin delta at week 12. Blood glucose reached maximum concentration within 5-10 min of the IVGTT test, and the concentration was, on average, 8.58 and 10.80 mmol/l at weeks 6 and 12, respectively. Insulin reached maximum concentration within 10-15 min of the IVGTT, and concentrations were, on average, 33.32 and 32.61 μUI/ml at weeks 6 and 12, respectively. Doubling MR supply improved animal growth up to weaning, but these differences disappeared by the end of the feeding period. Despite similar responses to glucose infusions preweaning, higher milk supply seemed to decrease insulin sensitivity after weaning.

Prenatal and Postnatal Nutrition Influence Pancreatic and Intestinal Carbohydrase Activities of Ruminants

In ruminant livestock species, nutrition can play an important role in the long-term programming of gastrointestinal function. Pancreatic and small intestinal digestive enzymes are important for postruminal digestion of carbohydrates and protein. Carbohydrases have been shown to respond to changes in the level of feed intake and the dietary inclusion of specific nutrients, including arginine, butyrate, folic acid, fructose, and leucine. Understanding how diet influences enzyme development and activity during prenatal and postnatal life could lead to the development of dietary strategies to optimize offspring growth and development to increase digestive efficiency of ruminant livestock species. More research is needed to understand how changes in fetal or neonatal carbohydrase activities in response to nutrition influence long-term growth performance and efficiency in ruminant livestock species to optimize nutritional strategies.

Supplementation with sodium butyrate improves growth and antioxidant function in dairy calves before weaning

Background

There is increasing research interest in using short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) including butyrate as potential alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters in animal production. This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of supplementation of sodium butyrate (SB) in liquid feeds (milk, milk replacer, and the mixture of both) on the growth performance, rumen fermentation, and serum antioxidant capacity and immunoglobins in dairy calves before weaning. Forty healthy female Holstein calves (4-day-old, 40 ± 5 kg of body weight) were housed in individual hutches and randomly allocated to 1 of 4 treatment groups (n = 10 per group) using the RAND function in Excel. The control group was fed no SB (SB0), while the other three groups were supplemented with 15 (SB15), 30 (SB30), or 45 (SB45) g/d of SB mixed into liquid feeds offered. The calves were initially fed milk only (days 2 to 20), then a mixture of milk and milk replacer (days 21 to 23), and finally milk replacer only (days 24 to 60).

Results

The SB supplementation enhanced growth and improved feed conversion into body weight gain compared with the SB0 group, and the average daily gain increased quadratically with increasing SB supplementation. No significant effect on rumen pH; concentrations of NH₃-N, individual and total VFAs; or acetate: propionate (A:P) ratio was found during the whole experimental period. Serum glutathione peroxidase activity increased linearly with the increased SB supplementation, while the serum concentration of maleic dialdehyde linearly decreased. Serum concentrations of immunoglobulin A, immunoglobulin G, or immunoglobulin M were not affected by the SB supplementation during the whole experimental period.

Conclusions

Under the conditions of this study, SB supplementation improved growth performance and antioxidant function in pre-weaned dairy calves. We recommended 45 g/d as the optimal level of SB supplementation mixed into liquid feeds (milk or milk replacer) to improve the growth and antioxidant function of dairy calves before weaning.

Non-surgical Periodontal Treatment Restored the Gut Microbiota and Intestinal Barrier in Apolipoprotein E-/- Mice With Periodontitis

Periodontitis has been associated with a variety of systematic diseases via affecting gut microbiota. However, the influence of periodontal treatment on intestinal microbiota is not known. Hyperlipidemia can significantly alter gut microbiota structure. It is proposed that the presence of hyperlipidemia can influence the impact of periodontitis on microbiota. This study was conducted to explore the influence of periodontitis and periodontal treatment on the gut microbiota on the basis of hyperlipidemia. Apolipoprotein E^-/-(ApoE^-/-) mice were ligatured to induced periodontitis and non-surgical periodontal treatment was performed for half of them after 4 weeks of ligation. Microbiota communities in the feces collected at 4, 5, 8 weeks after ligation were investigated using next-generation sequencing of 16S rDNA. Bone loss at periodontitis sites were analyzed using micro-computed tomography (Micro-CT). Morphology and mucosal architecture injury of ileum tissue were observed with hematoxylin-eosin staining. The serum lipid levels were assayed. The results showed that β-diversity index in experimental periodontitis group was differed significantly from that of the control group. Significant differences were found in β-diversity between the non-surgical periodontal treatment group and the ligation group. The samples of the non-surgical periodontal treatment group and the control group were clustered together 4 weeks after periodontal treatment. Intestinal villus height and ratio of villus height to crypt depth was found decreased after ligation and restored after non-surgical periodontal treatment. Non-surgical periodontal treatment induced the colonization and prosper of butyrate-producing bacteria Eubacterium, which was absent/not present in the ligation group. We confirmed that periodontitis led to gut microbiota dysbiosis in mice with hyperlipidemia. Non-surgical periodontal treatment had the trend to normalize the gut microbiota and improved the intestinal mucosal barrier impaired by periodontitis in apoE^-/- mice.

Influence of dietary fructose supplementation on visceral organ mass, carbohydrase activity, and mRNA expression of genes involved in small intestinal carbohydrate assimilation in neonatal calves

The hypothesis of this experiment was that dietary fructose would influence visceral organ mass, carbohydrase activity, and mRNA expression of carbohydrases and nutrient transporters in the small intestine in neonatal calves. Therefore, our objective was to use the neonatal calf as a model to evaluate the effects of postruminal fructose supply on small intestinal carbohydrate assimilation. Ten calves (<7 d of age; 41.2 ± 1.46 kg of body weight) were fed milk replacer at 2.0% of body weight daily (816 ± 90.5 g/d; 272 ± 30.1 g/L; dry-matter basis) in 2 equal portions and assigned to the following dietary treatment groups: (1) milk replacer (control; n = 6) or (2) milk replacer + 2.2 g of fructose/kg of body weight (fructose; n = 4). Calves were fed dietary treatments for 28 d, with jugular blood sampled every 7 d before and after the morning feeding. Calves were slaughtered, and visceral weights were recorded. Postruminal carbohydrase activities were assayed. Quantitative real-time PCR was conducted for small intestinal mRNA expression of nutrient transporters [solute carrier family 2 member 5 (GLUT5), solute carrier family 2 member 2 (GLUT2), and solute carrier family 5 member 1 (SGLT1)], carbohydrases (lactase, maltase-glucoamylase, and sucrase-isomaltase), and ketohexokinase (KHK). Data were analyzed using MIXED procedures in SAS version 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc, Cary, NC). Dietary fructose supplementation decreased serum glucose concentration. Small intestinal mass was greater in calves supplemented with fructose. Dietary fructose supplementation did not influence pancreatic α-amylase, small intestinal isomaltase, or maltase activities. Sucrase activity was undetected in the small intestine. Dietary fructose supplementation increased small intestinal glucoamylase activity per gram of tissue by 30% and increased maltase-glucoamylase mRNA expression by 6.8-fold. Dietary fructose supplementation did not influence mRNA expression of GLUT5, SGLT1, GLUT2, or KHK. Dietary fructose supplementation increased small intestinal lactase mRNA expression by 3.1-fold. Sucrase-isomaltase mRNA expression in the small intestine decreased 5.1-fold with dietary fructose supplementation. Dietary fructose supplementation does not induce sucrase activity in neonatal calves; however, sucrase-isomaltase may be transcriptionally regulated by dietary fructose in neonatal calves. More research is needed to compare glucose and fructose at isocaloric intakes to examine effects of dietary fructose at equal metabolizable energy intake.

Review: Importance of colostrum supply and milk feeding intensity on gastrointestinal and systemic development in calves

Feeding management of the postnatal and preweaning calf has an important impact on calf growth and development during this critical period and affects the health and well-being of the calves. After birth, an immediate and sufficient colostrum supply is a prerequisite for successful calf rearing. Colostrum provides high amounts of nutrient as well as non-nutrient factors that promote the immune system and intestinal maturation of the calf. The maturation and function of the neonatal intestine enable the calf to digest and absorb the nutrients provided by colostrum and milk. Therefore, colostrum intake supports the start of anabolic processes in several tissues, stimulating postnatal body growth and organ development. After the colostrum feeding period, an intensive milk feeding protocol, that is, at least 20% of BW milk intake/day, is required to realise the calf potential for growth and organ development during the preweaning period. Insufficient milk intake delays postnatal growth and may have detrimental effects on organ development, for example, the intestine and the mammary gland. The somatotropic axis as the main postnatal endocrine regulatory system for body growth is stimulated by the intake of high amounts of colostrum and milk and indicates the promotion of anabolic metabolism in calves. The development of the forestomach is an important issue during the preweaning period in calves, and forestomach maturation is best achieved by solid feed intake. Unfortunately, intensive milk-feeding programmes compromise solid feed intake during the first weeks of life. In the more natural situation for beef calves, when milk and solid feed intake occurs at the same time, calves benefit from the high milk intake as evidenced by enhanced body growth and organ maturation without impaired forestomach development during weaning. To realise an intensive milk-feeding programme, it is recommended that the weaning process should not start too early and that solid feed intake should be at a high extent despite intensive milk feeding. A feeding concept based on intensive milk feeding prevents hunger and abnormal behaviour of the calves and fits the principles of animal welfare during preweaning calf rearing. Studies on milk performance in dairy cows indicate that feeding management during early calf rearing influences lifetime performance. Therefore, an intensive milk-feeding programme affects immediate as well as long-term performance, probably by programming metabolic pathways during the preweaning period.