Iron sulfate and feed pelleting to detoxify free gossypol in cottonseed diets for dairy cattle

Effects of Replacing Soybean Meal with Cottonseed Meal, Peanut Meal, Rapeseed Meal, or Distillers' Dried Grains with Solubles on the Growth Performance, Nutrient Digestibility, Serum Parameters, and Rumen Fermentation in Growing Lambs

Considering the frequently large price fluctuations for soybean meal, an alternative is the increased use of locally produced high-protein ingredients. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of the total replacement of soybean meal with different sources of protein on the growth performance, nutrient digestibility, serum parameters, rumen fermentation parameters, and bacterial communities in growing lambs. Sixty sheep with similar body weights (38.46 ± 0.71 kg) were distributed to one of five treatments: soybean meal (SBM); cottonseed meal (COM); peanut meal (PEM); rapeseed meal (RAM); and distillers' dried grains with solubles (DDGS). The experiment lasted 62 days with a 10-day adaptation period and a 52-day growing period. The results indicated that the body weight and average daily gain were not affected by different protein sources (p > 0.05), but the dry matter intake of the SBM group was lower than that of the other groups (p < 0.05); otherwise, the feed efficiency was higher (p < 0.05). The digestion of dry matter was higher in the SBM, COM, and RAM groups than in the DDGS and PEM groups (p < 0.05). Meanwhile, compared to the other groups, the SBM group had the highest digestion of gross energy and crude protein (p < 0.05). In addition, the concentration of glutathione peroxidase was highest in the SBM group (p < 0.05). Regarding the rumen fermentation, the SBM group had the highest concentration of NH3-N (p < 0.05). The rumen bacterial community was not affected by treatments (p > 0.05). In conclusion, the total replacement of soybean meal with cottonseed, peanut, rapeseed, or DDGS reduced digestibility but did not impact the body weight or average daily gain of growing lambs and had no effect on the immune function and rumen bacterial community; thus, they can be used to substitute the soybean meal.

Short-term starvation at different feeding regimes on appetite responses, feeding utilization and physiological indices, of red hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus × Oreochromis niloticus) fingerlings reared in brackish water

A 42 day factorial trial (3x2) was designed to evaluate the effect of short-term starvation with different feeding frequencies on performance, feed utilization, physiological status and appetite responses of red hybrid tilapia fingerlings. Eighteen plastic tanks with a capacity of (55 L) were used to accomplish this work. Fingerlings with an average initial weight of 23 g ± 0.2 (SE) were randomly stocked at a rate of 8 fingerlings/aquarium. Six groups were designated as the following: II/ED: fish was fed twice every day; IV/ED: fish fed four times every day; II/EOD: fish fed twice every other day (alternate-day feeding or one day of feeding followed by another of fasting); IV/EOD: was fed four times every other day; II/EO3D: fish fed twice every other three days (three day of feeding followed by another of fasting) and IV/EO3D: fish fed four times every other three days. Fish were fed on commercial diets 30 % protein (4 % of biomass). Results showed insignificant differences between fish fed every other day and those fed every day in some growth indicators. In the same trend, the interaction between feed deprivation and feeding frequency cleared that fingerlings of IV/EOD did not significantly differ with those fed every day in growth indices. Moreover this treatment was the best in feed conversion efficiency and several physiological indicators.

Ferrous Ion Alleviates Lipid Deposition and Inflammatory Responses Caused by a High Cottonseed Meal Diet by Modulating Hepatic Iron Transport Homeostasis and Controlling Ferroptosis in Juvenile Ctenopharyngodon idellus

To investigate the mechanisms through which ferrous ion (Fe2+) addition improves the utilization of a cottonseed meal (CSM) diet, two experimental diets with equal nitrogen and energy content (low-cottonseed meal (LCM) and high-cottonseed meal (HCM) diets, respectively) containing 16.31% and 38.46% CSM were prepared. Additionally, the HCM diet was supplemented with graded levels of FeSO4·7H2O to establish two different Fe2+ supplementation groups (HCM + 0.2%Fe2+ and HCM + 0.4%Fe2+). Juvenile Ctenopharyngodon idellus (grass carps) (5.0 ± 0.5 g) were fed one of these four diets (HCM, LCM, HCM + 0.2%Fe2+ and HCM + 0.4%Fe2+ diets) for eight weeks. Our findings revealed that the HCM diet significantly increased lipid peroxide (LPO) concentration and the expression of lipogenic genes, e.g., sterol regulatory element binding transcription factor 1 (srebp1) and stearoyl-CoA desaturase (scd), leading to excessive lipid droplet deposition in the liver (p < 0.05). However, these effects were significantly reduced in the HCM + 0.2%Fe2+ and HCM + 0.4%Fe2+ groups (p < 0.05). Plasma high-density lipoprotein (HDL) concentration was also significantly lower in the HCM and HCM + 0.2%Fe2+ groups compared to the LCM group (p < 0.05), whereas low-density lipoprotein (LDL) concentration was significantly higher in the HCM + 0.2%Fe2+ and HCM + 0.4%Fe2+ groups than in the LCM group (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the plasma levels of liver functional indices, including alkaline phosphatase (ALP), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and glucose (GLU), were significantly lower in the HCM + 0.4%Fe2+ group (p < 0.05). Regarding the expression of genes related to iron transport regulation, transferrin 2 (tfr2) expression in the HCM group and Fe2+ supplementation groups were significantly suppressed compared to the LCM group (p < 0.05). The addition of 0.4% Fe2+ in the HCM diet activated hepcidin expression and suppressed ferroportin-1 (fpn1) expression (p < 0.05). Compared to the LCM group, the expression of genes associated with ferroptosis and inflammation, including acyl-CoA synthetase long-chain family member 4b (acsl4b), lysophosphatidylcholine acyltransferase 3 (lpcat3), cyclooxygenase (cox), interleukin 1β (il-1β), and nuclear factor kappa b (nfκb), were significantly increased in the HCM group (p < 0.05), whereas Fe2+ supplementation in the HCM diet significantly inhibited their expression (p < 0.05) and significantly suppressed lipoxygenase (lox) expression (p < 0.05). Compared with the HCM group without Fe2+ supplementation, Fe2+ supplementation in the HCM diet significantly upregulated the expression of genes associated with ferroptosis, such as heat shock protein beta-associated protein1 (hspbap1), glutamate cysteine ligase (gcl), and glutathione peroxidase 4a (gpx4a) (p < 0.05), and significantly decreased the expression of the inflammation-related genes interleukin 15/10 (il-15/il-10) (p < 0.05). In conclusion, FeSO4·7H2O supplementation in the HCM diet maintained iron transport and homeostasis in the liver of juvenile grass carps, thus reducing the occurrence of ferroptosis and alleviating hepatic lipid deposition and inflammatory responses caused by high dietary CSM contents.

The Complete Genome Sequence of a Gossypol-Degrading Bacterial Strain, Raoultella sp. YL01

Cottonseed meal is an important source of plant protein for the meal fodder materials. But its usage in animal breeding industry is limited by a type of toxic phenol, gossypol, that has toxic effects on animal health. Microbial degradation is a promising way to lower down gossypol in cottonseed meal. However, the molecular mechanisms of bio-degradation of gossypol is still unclear. In this study we isolated a gossypol-degrading bacterial strain, YL01, and sequenced its complete genome via Oxford Nanopore sequencing method. There is a chromosome (5,737,005 bp) and a plasmid (136,446 bp) in YL01. 5489 protein coding genes in total were functionally annotated. 16S rRNA analysis showed that YL01 taxonomically belongs to the genus of Raoultella. YL01 is the first published complete genome sequence of microbes capable of gossypol degradation. Gene function annotation showed that 126 protein coding genes may involve in gossypol catabolism. Sequence similarity analysis showed that, as the only gossypol-degrading strain in the genus of Raoultella, YL01 uniquely holds 260 genes that are not possessed by other Raoultella strains. Our work gives a preliminary list for genes responsible for gossypol degradation but further investigations are needed to completely disclose this molecular processes.

Effects of sublethal doses of gossypol on haematological properties and biochemical metabolites of male rabbit

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of two sublethal doses of gossypol (GOS) (4 and 20 mg/kg of body weight), administered every other day, on some haematological, biochemical, enzymatic and electrolytic properties and amino and fatty acids in male rabbit blood plasma. The experiment lasted for 16 wk and included two phases: 1) administration period; rabbits were given the experimental doses of GOS for 8 wk; and 2) recovery period; rabbits were allowed 8 wk for complete withdrawal of drugs from the plasma. Results showed that low levels of gossypol increased (<em>P</em>&lt;0.01) haemoglobin, mean corpuscular haemoglobin and white blood cells compared to control. Plasma total protein was increased (<em>P</em>&lt;0.01) by the low GOS dose in both experimental phases. Likewise, glucose concentration was increased (<em>P</em>&lt;0.01) by the high GOS dose during the recovery period. Aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase enzymes were increased (<em>P</em>&lt;0.01) by the high dose of GOS treatment only. Low GOS dose increased (<em>P</em>&lt;0.01) blood plasma Na+ concentration in the recovery period only. Results revealed that total essential amino acids (EAA), and EAA/non-EAA ratio were not affected in a dose-dependent manner during the treatment phase expect for plasma proline, which was increased along with non-EAA (<em>P</em>&lt;0.01) by high GOS dose. Additionally, GOS administration did not affect total unsaturated fatty acids (USFA), total saturated fatty acids (SFA) and SFA/USFA ratio in a dose-dependent manner. In conclusion, Gossypol treatment affected rabbit haematological parameters and biochemical properties of blood plasma in a dose-dependent manner.

Molecularly Imprinted Polymers for Gossypol via Sol⁻Gel, Bulk, and Surface Layer Imprinting-A Comparative Study

Three gossypol molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) were prepared by bulk polymerization (MIP1), surface layer imprinting using silica gel as the support (MIP2), and the sol-gel process (MIP3). The as-prepared MIPs were characterized by SEM and nitrogen adsorption-desorption techniques to study the morphology structure. The adsorption experiments exhibited that MIP1 had adsorption capacity as high as 564 mg·g-1. The MIP2 showed faster adsorption kinetics than MIP1 and MIP3. The adsorption equilibrium could be reached for gossypol in 40 min. A selectivity study showed that the adsorption capacity of MIPs for gossypol was about 1.9 times higher than that of the structurally-similar analogs ellagic acid and 6.6 times higher than that of the quercetin. It was found that the pseudo-second-order kinetic model and the Freundlich isotherm model were more applicable for the adsorption kinetics and adsorption isotherm of gossypol binding onto the MIP1 and MIP2, respectively. Results suggested that among those three, the MIP2 was a desirable sorbent for rapid adsorption and MIP1 was suitable for selective recognition of gossypol.

Influence of Size and Shape of Silica Supports on the Sol⁻Gel Surface Molecularly Imprinted Polymers for Selective Adsorption of Gossypol

The influence of various silica gel supports with different shapes and sizes on the recognition properties of surface molecular imprinted polymers (MIPs) was investigated. MIPs for selective recognition and adsorption of gossypol were synthesized via the sol⁻gel process with a surface imprinting technique on silica gel substrates. 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) and tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) were chosen as the functional monomer and the cross-linker. The morphology and structure of the gossypol-MIPs were characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and a standard Brunauer⁻Emett⁻Teller (BET) analysis. Results indicated that the surface imprinted polymer layer facilitated the removal and rebinding of the template, and thus, achieved fast binding kinetics. Compared with the MIPs prepared on irregularly shaped silica with a broad particle size distribution, the MIPs using regularly-shaped silica of uniform size showed higher imprinting factor (IF), and the MIP made with a relatively larger sized (60 μm) spherical silica, demonstrated higher adsorption capacity compared to the MIPs made with smaller sized, spherical silica. The MIP prepared with 60 μm spherically shaped silica, featured a fast adsorption kinetic of 10 min, and a saturated adsorption capacity of 204 mg·g−1. The gossypol-MIP had higher selectivity (IF = 2.20) for gossypol over its structurally-similar analogs ellagic acid (IF = 1.13) and quercetin (IF = 1.20). The adsorption data of the MIP correlated well with the pseudo-second-order kinetic model and the Freundlich isotherm model, which implied that chemical adsorption dominated, and that multilayer adsorption occurred. Furthermore, the MIP exhibited an excellent regeneration performance, and the adsorption capacity of the MIP for gossypol only decreased by 6% after six reused cycles, indicating good application potential for selective adsorption of gossypol.

Isolation and characterization of a novel gossypol-degrading bacteria Bacillus subtilis strain Rumen Bacillus Subtilis

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study was to isolate gossypol-degrading bacteria and to assess its potential for gossypol degradation.

METHODS

Rumen liquid was collected from fistulated cows grazing the experimental pasture. Approximately 1 mL of the rumen liquid was spread onto basal medium plates containing 2 g/L gossypol as the only source of carbon and was then cultured at 39°C to isolate gossypol-degrading bacteria. The isolated colonies were cultured for 6 h and then their size and shape observed by microscope and scanning electron microscope. The 16S rRNA gene of isolated colonies was sequenced and aligned using National Center for Biotechnology Information-Basic Local Alignment Search Tool. The various fermentation conditions, initial pH, incubation temperature, inoculum level and fermentationperiod were analyzed in cottonseed meal (CSM). The crude protein (CP), total gossypol (TG), and free gossypol (FG) were determined in CSM after fermentation with isolated strain at 39°C for 72 h.

RESULTS

Screening results showed that a single bacterial isolate, named Rumen Bacillus Subtilis (RBS), could use gossypol as a carbon source. The bacterium was identified by 16S rDNA sequencing as being 98% homologous to the sequence of Bacillus subtilis strain GH38. The optimum fermentation conditions were found to be 72 h, 39°C, pH 6.5, moisture 50%, inoculum level 107 cell/g. In the optimum fermentation conditions, the FG and TG content in fermented CSM decreased 78.86% and 49% relative to the control. The content of CP and the essential amino acids of the fermented CSM increased respectively, compared with the control.

CONCLUSION

The isolation of a gossypol-degrading bacterium from the cow rumen is of great importance for gossypol biodegradation and may be a valuable potential source for gossypol-degradation of CSM.

Presence of free gossypol in whole cottonseed

The European Commission asked EFSA to assess information provided by the Spanish Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Environment, on the toxicity of free gossypol in relation to the use of whole cotton seed in feed for ruminants, in particular dairy cows, and, if necessary, to update the previous opinion of the EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) on gossypol as an undesirable substance in animal feed. Gossypol is a polyphenolic compound that exists in a racemic mixture of (+)‐gossypol and (‐)‐gossypol isomers. It occurs in free or (protein‐) bound forms in cottonseeds. The most commonly used cottonseeds in feed are from Upland and Pima varieties. The Pima variety is considered more toxic due to a higher content of the (‐)‐gossypol isomer. Upland whole cottonseeds (WCS) are fed with no further processing (after delinting); Pima varieties normally undergo further processing (grinding or cracking). It is claimed that WCS have a greater retention time in the rumen, which results in an increased detoxifying activity, compared to a shorter ruminal retention time, in the case of cracked cottonseed or cottonseed meal products. Increased erythrocyte fragility has been observed in cows given WCS Upland varieties at similar exposure levels as those resulting from an inclusion rate of 10% of WCS containing gossypol at 7,000 mg/kg in feed – the maximum permitted level of gossypol in WCS suggested by the Spanish Delegation. The information from the Spanish delegation does not differentiate between varieties in their suggestion for an increase in the maximum permitted content of free gossypol for WCS. As both Upland and Pima varieties are grown in the EU and are used for animal feed, both varieties of WCS should be considered. The CONTAM Panel considered it not necessary to update the previous opinion.

The Effect of Replacing Fish Meal in the Diet with Enzyme-Treated Soybean Meal (HP310) on Growth and Body Composition of Rainbow Trout Fry

The potential of enzyme-treated soybean meal powder (HP310) as fish meal alternative in diets for rainbow trout weighing 1.17 ± 0.3 g was evaluated for 60 days. Fish meal was replaced with HP310 at 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of experimental diets. A control group was also considered. The results showed that diets containing 75% and 100% HP310 had significantly higher feed conversion ratio and lower feed intake, weight gain and specific growth rate compared to fish feed diets containing higher levels of fish protein ingredients (p < 0.05). Results suggested use of 50% HP310 in trout diet had a positive effect on growth performance (p < 0.05). All fish feed diets with HP310 had lower hematocrit, hemoglobin and red blood cells compared to the control group, but the differences between the control and the other treatments up to 75% HP310 replacement levels of diet (p > 0.05). However increasing in level of HP310 in the diet caused a significant increase of the white blood cells (p < 0.05). The fish fed with a diet totally replaced by HP310 showed the highest values of ash and moisture content among the diets and showed significantly different levels when compared with the control and other feeding treatments (p < 0.05).

Gossypol toxicity from cottonseed products

Gossypol is a phenolic compound produced by pigment glands in cotton stems, leaves, seeds, and flower buds (Gossypium spp.). Cottonseed meal is a by-product of cotton that is used for animal feeding because it is rich in oil and proteins. However, gossypol toxicity limits cottonseed use in animal feed. High concentrations of free gossypol may be responsible for acute clinical signs of gossypol poisoning which include respiratory distress, impaired body weight gain, anorexia, weakness, apathy, and death after several days. However, the most common toxic effects is the impairment of male and female reproduction. Another important toxic effect of gossypol is its interference with immune function, reducing an animal's resistance to infections and impairing the efficiency of vaccines. Preventive procedures to limit gossypol toxicity involve treatment of the cottonseed product to reduce the concentration of free gossypol with the most common treatment being exposure to heat. However, free gossypol can be released from the bound form during digestion. Agronomic selection has produced cotton varieties devoid of glands producing gossypol, but these varieties are not normally grown because they are less productive and are more vulnerable to attacks by insects.

Mecanismos da intoxicação do fígado de rato causada pelo gossipol

O fígado desempenha uma função central no metabolismo devido à sua interposição entre o trato digestivo e a circulação geral do organismo. Ele é também o principal órgão envolvido na biotransformação de substâncias exógenas (xenobióticos), com capacidade de converter compostos hidrofóbicos em hidrossolúveis, mais facilmente eliminados pelo organismo. O gossipol é uma substância fenólica tóxica presente na semente de algodão (Gossypium sp). Com o objetivo de estudar os mecanismos envolvidos na hepatotoxicidade do gossipol avaliou-se os seus efeitos no sistema antioxidante do fígado de ratos no que diz respeito ao estresse oxidativo e aspectos histopatológicos. Foram utilizados ratos machos da linhagem Wistar, separados em dois grupos, sendo que um recebeu óleo de canola (veículo, grupo Controle) e o outro recebeu gossipol na dosagem de 40 mg/kg de peso vivo do animal por 15 dias (grupo Tratado). O tratamento com gossipol promoveu alterações na atividade sérica das enzimas marcadoras de dano hepático e um significativo estresse oxidativo caracterizado pela diminuição nos níveis da glutationa reduzida (GSH) e consequente aumento da glutationa oxidada (GSSG), incluindo, ainda, danos à membrana plasmática e de organelas demonstrados pela peroxidação lipídica. O resultado da avaliação histopatológica demonstrou degeneração dos hepatócitos.

Effects of different sources and levels of dietary gossypol on gossypol residues in plasma and milk of lactating cows

Free gossypol residues in tissues or milk from feeding whole cottonseed and cottonseed meal were measured for their effect on health of dairy cows and humans. Forty lactating cows were randomly assigned to 5 treatments in a 60-d experiment to investigate the effects of sources and dietary level of gossypol on plasma and milk gossypol concentrations in lactating cows. Five experimental diets had identical net energy for lactation and crude protein content on a dry matter (DM) basis. Soybean meal was the main protein ingredient used in the control diet. Cottonseed meal (CSM) or whole cottonseed (WCS) substituted for part of the soybean meal in the other 4 diets. Gossypol levels in the 5 diets were 0 (control), 91.15 mg/kg of DM in CSM1, 117.31mg/kg of DM in CSM2, 385.43 mg/kg of DM in WCS1, and 611.13 mg/kg in WCS2. Yields of 3.5% fat-corrected milk were significantly higher for cows in the WCS2 group; cows in the CSM1 and WCS1 groups showed no differences but both were numerically higher than the control and CSM2 groups. Milk protein concentration was lower for cows consuming WCS1 compared with the control group. Lactose concentration was lower for cows in the CSM2 group compared with the WCS2 group, but no differences were observed among other diets. Aspartate aminotransferase in serum was significantly higher for the WCS2 group compared with the control and WCS1 groups, but no difference was observed with the CSM1 and CSM2 groups. Concentrations of gossypol in plasma and milk of cows in the WCS1 and WCS2 groups were both higher than those of the other groups. No adverse effects were observed on cows fed diets containing 12.0% CSM, and no gossypol was found in plasma and milk. When WCS comprised 15% of the diet DM, yields of 3.5% fat-corrected milk were increased in cows and gossypol was detected in plasma and milk but not at harmful levels.

DNA degradation of genetically modified cottonseed meal during feed processing

The effects of dry heating, wet heating, and extrusion on the degradation of DNA in cottonseed meal (CSM) were studied using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and real-time PCR approach. Both the sad1 DNA, ranging between 128 and 883 bp in size, and the cry1Ab/c gene, ranging between 183 and 652 bp in size, were detectable in all dry-heated CSM and cottonseed. During wet heating, the sad1 gene (≥883 bp) and the cry1Ab/c (≥952 bp) gene were thoroughly degraded at 105 and 120 °C, respectively. Sizes from 128 to 530 bp for the sad1 gene and sizes from 183 to 652 bp for the cry1Ab/c gene were detected during extrusion at temperatures ranging from 75 to 135 °C. Fragments ≤883 bp for the sad1 gene and ≤952 bp for the cry1Ab/c gene were detected in all of the extruded samples with water content varying between 26 and 34 %. The copy number ratio of cry1Ab/c to sad1 in samples of Bt cottonseed meal decreased rapidly when the temperature increased during the heating process. In conclusion, feed processing markedly degrades the larger DNA fragments of sad1 and cry1Ab/c, with high temperature and water content being the main factors for that degradation.

Identification and proteomic analysis of a novel gossypol-degrading fungal strain

BACKGROUND

Cottonseed meal, an important source of feed raw materials, has limited use in the feed industry because of the presence of the highly toxic gossypol. The aim of the current work was to isolate the gossypol-degrading fungus from a soil microcosm and investigate the proteins involved in gossypol degradation.

RESULTS

A fungal strain, AN-1, that uses gossypol as its sole carbon source was isolated and identified as Aspergillus niger. A large number of intracellular proteins were detected using sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, but no significant difference was observed between the glucose-containing and gossypol-containing mycelium extracts. Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis results showed that the protein spots were concentrated in the 25.0-66.2 kDa range and distributed in different pI gradients. PDQuest software showed that 51 protein spots in the gels were differentially expressed. Of these, 20 differential protein spots, including six special spots expressed in gossypol, were analyzed using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry.

CONCLUSION

The fungus AN-1 biodegraded gossypol and the proteomic analysis results indicate that some proteins were involved in the gossypol biodegradation during fungus survival, using gossypol as its sole carbon source.

Gossypol--a polyphenolic compound from cotton plant

Gossypol (C(30)H(30)O(8)) is a polyphenolic compound derived from the cotton plant (genus Gossypium, family Malvaceae). The presence of six phenolic hydroxyl groups and two aldehydic groups makes gossypol chemically reactive. Gossypol can undergo Schiff base formation, ozonolysis, oxidation, and methylation to form gossypol derivatives. Gossypol and its derivatives have been the target of much research due to their multifaceted biological activities including antifertility, antivirus, anticancer, antioxidant, antitrypanosomal, antimicrobial, and antimalarial activities. Because of restricted rotation of the internaphthyl bond, gossypol is a chiral compound, which has two atropisomers (i.e., (+)- and (-)-gossypol) that exhibit different levels of biological activities. This chapter covers the physiochemical properties, analyses, biological properties, and agricultural and clinical implications of gossypol.

CP/MAS spectroscopy in the determination of the tautomeric forms of gossypol, its Schiff bases and hydrazones in the solid state

New Schiff bases and new hydrazones were synthesized and studied by (13)C and (15)N CP/MAS spectroscopy and by (1)H--(1)H COSY, (1)H--(13)C HMBC, (1)H--(13)C HSQC, (1)H--(15)N HMQC and (1)H--(15)N HSQC correlations. The CP/MAS investigation of gossypol has demonstrated that in the solid state it exists exclusively in the aldehyde-aldehyde tautomeric form. In contrast, CP/MAS studies of hydrazones and Schiff bases reveal that these compounds occur in the solid state in the N-imine-N-imine and enamine-enamine tautomeric forms, respectively. It is shown that the (13)C resonances of C-6, C-7 and C-11 carbon atoms are suitable for distinguishing between the tautomeric forms of aza-derivatives of gossypol in the solid state. Furthermore, we have proved that the (15)N CP/MAS spectra can be used to identify these tautomeric forms.

Effect of selected fungi on the reduction of gossypol levels and nutritional value during solid substrate fermentation of cottonseed meal

The objective of this work was to investigate the effect of six individual strains of fungi on the reduction of gossypol levels and nutritional value during solid substrate fermentation of cottonseed meal (CSM). Six groups of disinfected CSM substrate were incubated for 48 h after inoculation with either of the fungi C. capsuligena ZD-1, C. tropicalis ZD-3, S. cerevisae ZD-5, A. terricola ZD-6, A. oryzae ZD-7, or A. niger ZD-8. One not inoculated group (substrate) was used as a control. Levels of initial and final free gossypol (FG), crude protein (CP), amino acids (AA) and in vitro digestibility were assayed. The experiment was done in triplicate. The experimental results indicated that microbial fermentation could greatly decrease (P<0.05) FG levels in CSM. The detoxification efficiency differed between the species of microorganisms applied. From the perspective of reducing CSM potential toxicity, C. tropicalis ZD-3 was most successful followed by S. cerevisae ZD-5 and A. niger ZD8. They could reduce FG levels of CSM to 29.8, 63.07 and 81.50 mg/kg based on DM (dry matter), respectively, and their detoxification rate were 94.57%, 88.51% and 85.16%, respectively. If crude protein, amino acids content and their in vitro digestibility were also taken into account, A. niger ZD-8 may be the best choice. The CP content of CSM substrate fermented by C. tropicalis ZD-3 and A. niger ZD-8 were improved by 10.76% and 22.24%; the TAA (total amino acids) contents were increased by 7.06% and 11.46%, and the EAA (essential amino acids) were raised by 7.77% and 12.64%, respectively. Especially, the levels of methionine, lysine and threonine were improved greatly (P<0.05). The in vitro CP digestibility of CSM fermented by C. tropicalis ZD-3 and A. niger ZD-8 was improved by 13.42% and 18.22%, the TAA were increased by 17.75% and 22.88%, and the EAA by 16.61% and 21.01%, respectively. In addition, the in vitro digestibility of methionine, lysine and threonine was also improved greatly (P<0.05).

Optimization of process parameters for reduction of gossypol levels in cottonseed meal by Candida tropicalis ZD-3 during solid substrate fermentation

The objective of this work is to optimize the process parameters for detoxification of gossypol in cottonseed meal (CSM) by Candida tropicalis ZD-3 during solid substrate fermentation (SSF). The maximum detoxification efficiency of gossypol was achieved by employing the substrate, which consists of 70% of CSM, 20% of corn flour and 10% of wheat bran. The optimum fermentation conditions for gossypol detoxification are incubation period of 48h, incubation temperature at 30 degrees Celsius, inoculum level 5% v/w, moisture content of solid substrate 50% and pH in nature. Adding minerals solution to CSM substrate benefit fermentation detoxification.

Effects of source of gossypol and supplemental iron on plasma gossypol in Holstein steers

Four experiments were conducted to evaluate factors influencing concentrations of plasma total gossypol (TG) in 30 Holstein steers fed cottonseed products. At the end of each 28-d experiment, steers were weighed and blood samples were collected and analyzed for plasma TG concentrations. During the entire study, steers did not show any overt signs of gossypol toxicity. In the 28 d before experiment 1, 30 steers with a body weight (BW) of 273 kg were fed a standardization diet with 15.0% Upland whole cottonseed (WCS) that resulted in a mean intake of 9.08 g/d of TG per steer/d and a plasma TG of 1.66 microg/mL. In experiment 1, 30 steers were fed 1 of 5 diets with 15.0% Upland WCS, but different levels of supplemental Fe [0, 150, 300, 450, and 600 mg/kg of diet dry matter (DM)]. Average daily gain was not affected by level of Fe in the diet, but DM intake, plasma TG, and plasma TG response decreased linearly as Fe in diets increased. In experiment 2, steers were fed diets with 15.0% Upland cottonseed as whole, cracked, roasted, cracked-roasted, or extruded. Analysis of the seed revealed that roasting or extrusion markedly reduced free gossypol (FG) content. Minor effects on animal performance were observed, but plasma TG decreased with roasting or extrusion of seeds, with the greatest reduction when the seed was cracked and then roasted. In experiment 3, steers were fed 2 levels of WCS (7.0 or 14.0% of DM) with 3 levels of cottonseed meal (2.8, 5.5, or 8.5% of DM) in the diet. Animal performance was not altered by diet, but plasma gossypol concentrations and responses were greater in steers fed diets with more WCS, because of the greater FG intake. In experiment 4, 24 steers were fed diets with 15.0% cottonseed (Upland or Pima) either as whole or cracked. Pima cottonseed increased TG and FG intakes, which resulted in greater plasma TG concentration and response. Animal response to processing of cottonseed tended to differ according to type of cottonseed. However, feeding Pima and cracking of cottonseed increased gossypol availability and plasma TG concentrations.

The effects of varying gossypol intake from whole cottonseed and cottonseed meal on lactation and blood parameters in lactating dairy cows

Effects of varying amounts of gossypol from whole Upland cottonseed (WCS) and cottonseed meal (CSM) were evaluated in 40 midlactation Holstein cows. After 14 d of pretreatment, cows were assigned to 1 of the 5 treatments for 84 d: control (no gossypol), 931 mg/kg total gossypol (TG) and 850 mg/kg free gossypol (FG) from WCS (moderate TG and high FG); 924 mg/kg TG and 91 mg/kg FG from CSM (moderate TG and low FG), 945 mg/kg TG and 479 mg/kg FG with equal amounts of TG from WCS and CSM (moderate TG and FG), or 1894 mg/kg TG and 960 mg/kg FG with equal amounts of TG from WCS and CSM (high TG and FG). Concentrations of plasma gossypol (PG) and its isomers were directly proportional to FG intake. Concentrations of PG reached a plateau after 28 d on treatment, and they were highest in cows receiving a diet with high TG and FG. Erythrocyte fragility differed among treatments and increased with increasing FG intake. Plasma gossypol returned to negligible concentrations 28 d after withdrawal of cottonseed products from the high TG and FG diet. Serum vitamin A was similar among treatments, but vitamin E increased with increasing FG intake. Serum enzymes were generally unaffected by treatments, but urea N increased in diets higher in TG and FG. Intake of dry matter was higher for the diet high in TG and FG than for the control diet, but was similar for other treatments. Cows receiving the high TG and FG diet produced more milk and 3.5% fat-corrected milk, with no changes in milk composition. Feeding a diet containing 1894 mg/kg TG and 960 mg/kg FG for 84 d increased PG concentrations and erythrocyte fragility and resulted in minor changes in blood metabolites and enzymes, but no detrimental effect on lactation performance was observed. Indicators of liver, kidney, and muscle cell viability suggest that the higher amounts of gossypol consumed in this study had only minor effects on those tissues in lactating dairy cows.

Increasing dietary levels of cracked pima cottonseed increase plasma gossypol but do not influence productive performance of lactating Holstein cows

Lactating Holstein cows were fed diets with increasing levels of cracked Pima cottonseed to determine its effects on plasma gossypol concentrations as well as milk yield and composition and dry matter (DM) intake in a short-term study. All diets contained 12.8% cottonseed, 43.5% concentrate, and 43.7% chopped alfalfa hay on a DM basis. The proportion of whole Upland cottonseed to cracked Pima cottonseed in the four dietswas 100:0, 67:33, 33:67, and 0:100. Four primiparous cows were fed the diets in a 4 x 4 Latin square design, and three multiparous cows were fed the diets in a Youden square design with five periods. All periods were 35 d. Upland and cracked Pima cottonseed contained 0.64 and 1.00% total gossypol (DM) with 41 and 52% of gossypol as the (-) isomer, respectively. Gossypol is a natural defense compound in the plant that protects it against pests and diseases, but can have antinutritional quality effects when consumed by dairy cattle. Total plasma gossypol concentrations increased linearly with increasing proportions (100:0, 67:33, 33:67, and 0:100) of cracked Pima cottonseed in the diet for primiparous (4.4, 6.0, 7.7, and 8.9 microg/ml) and multiparous (4.3, 7.3, 9.7, and 11.4 microg/ml) cows, respectively. While primiparous cows responded similarly to gossypol intake, the response of plasma gossypol intake in multiparous cows differed among cows. This indicates the importance of animal variation when relating plasma gossypol levels with gossypol intake. Milk yield, as well as its components and DM intake, were not affected by increasing dietary inclusion levels of cracked Pima cottonseedup to 8.6% of DM intake for either primiparous or multiparous cows, even though plasma gossypol concentrations increased sharply over this dietary inclusion range. Although the highest dietary inclusion level of Pima cottonseed (i.e., 12.8%) numerically depressed performance of cows of both parities, these differences failed to reach statistical significance in these short-term trials with few cows.

Feeding cotton products to cattle

Despite the potential for gossypol toxicosis (particularly in pre-ruminants) and risk factors associated with impaired fertility in bulls, cottonseed products offer a safe alternative feed for cattle producers when fed at recommended levels. Beef producers seeking to lower production costs should consider using cotton byproducts in their feeding programs. If carefully incorporated, cotton byproduct feeds can reduce feed costs while maintaining or increasing the level of cattle performance. Cottonseed meal will remain a standard protein supplement for beef cattle throughout the country. Whole cottonseed has much potential for Southern producers near cotton gins if it is purchased in a timely fashion and fed according to recommendations. Cotton gin trash, cottonseed hulls, and cotton textile mill waste also have potential economic benefits, especially to producers located near cotton and cottonseed processing facilities.

The effects of feeding varying amounts of gossypol from whole cottonseed and cottonseed meal in lactating dairy cows

Effects of feeding varying amounts of total gossypol from whole cottonseed and cottonseed meal were evaluated in 30 lactating Holstein cows. After a 14-d pretreatment period, cows were assigned for 42 d to one of five treatments: control (diet A); 1040 mg/kg of total gossypol, and 989 mg/kg of free gossypol from whole cottonseed (diet B); 900 mg/kg of total gossypol and 64 mg/kg of free gossypol from cottonseed meal (diet C); 960 mg/kg of total gossypol and 531 mg/kg of free gossypol with equal amounts of total gossypol from whole cottonseed and cottonseed meal (diet D); or 1922 mg/kg of total gossypol and 1050 mg/kg of free gossypol with equal amounts of total gossypol from whole cottonseed and cottonseed meal (diet E). Concentrations of plasma gossypol and its isomers were directly proportional to free gossypol intake. Plasma gossypol concentrations plateaued after 35 d on treatment, and they were highest in cows receiving diet E. At 42 d on treatment, erythrocyte fragility was higher in the cows receiving the diet E, but it did not differ among other treatments. Dry matter intakes were similar for all groups. Cows receiving diet E produced more milk and 3.5% fat-corrected milk, but milk protein content decreased. Feeding diets containing 1900 mg/kg of total gossypol and 1050 mg/kg of free gossypol for 42 d resulted in increased plasma gossypol concentrations and erythrocyte fragility, but no detrimental impact on lactation performance were observed.

The performance of broiler chicks fed diets containing extruded cottonseed meal supplemented with lysine

Three experiments were conducted to test the hypothesis that extruding cottonseed meal (CSM) with supplemental lysine improves its feeding value by detoxifying gossypol. The performance of 1-wk-old straight-run Peterson x Arbor Acres broiler chicks fed diets containing 20% feed-grade or extruded CSM was compared with that of control chicks fed corn and soybean meal-based broiler rations. All diets were formulated to meet minimum NRC requirements. Lysine levels were adjusted by addition of synthetic lysine at rates of 0.5 to 2.0% of the protein in CSM. In all experiments, weight gain, feed intake, and feed conversion ratio (FCR) of broilers at 21 d were significantly affected by the diets. Feeding feed-grade and extruded CSM resulted in decreased body weight gain, increased feed intake, and inefficient feed utilization. When 2% lysine was added to feed-grade or extruded CSM, the body weight gains of chicks were not significantly different from those fed the control diet. The FCR of chicks fed feed-grade and extruded CSM plus 2% lysine at 21 d was significantly better than that of chicks fed feed-grade or extruded CSM alone. Abdominal fat pads (as a percentage of body weight) were significantly increased by the inclusion of CSM with or without the addition of lysine (P < or = 0.019). Liver, spleen, and heart weights were not affected by the presence of 20% CSM in the diet. The effects of CSM on plasma iron level was not consistent. Only in Experiment 1 did CSM cause a significant reduction in plasma iron. The hemoglobin contents and hematocrit values of blood from chicks fed diets with 20% CSM were not significantly different from those of the controls. The extrusion process reduced the free gossypol in CSM, but the total gossypol level was not changed, and chick performance was not improved. However, this study shows that, with adequate supplemental lysine, CSM can be used in broiler diets without a reduction in performance.

Milk production and plasma gossypol of cows fed cottonseed and oilseed meals with or without rumen-undegradable protein

Twenty-four multiparous Holstein cows were randomly assigned at calving to treatment diets using a modified split-plot design to determine the effects of protein source on milk production and composition. The treatment diets consisted of an 80:20 combination of corn and alfalfa silages and whole cottonseed at 12% of the dietary dry matter (DM). The treatment diets were formulated to contain 17% crude protein (CP) and 20% acid detergent fiber on a DM basis. One of the following sources of supplemental CP was included in each treatment diet: 1) cottonseed meal, 2) cottonseed meal plus a rumen-undegradable protein (RUP) supplement, 3) soybean meal, and 4) soybean meal plus an RUP supplement. Cows were fed the initial treatment diet for 6 wk and then were switched to the other oilseed meal source but continued to receive the same amount of RUP during the second period of the study. Milk production and composition were not affected by treatment diet. Cows fed treatment diets without RUP supplementation consumed more DM and thus more CP. Supplementation with RUP resulted in greater milk production efficiency per unit of DM consumed. Cows fed treatment diets containing cottonseed meal had higher plasma gossypol concentrations than did cows fed treatment diets containing soybean meal. Plasma gossypol concentrations for all cows in each group were below the recommended upper limit that is considered to be safe. Data suggest that cottonseed meal in the diet can be substituted for soybean meal, resulting in similar milk production and composition.

Effect of graded concentrations of gossypol on calf performance: toxicological and pathological considerations

The effects of feeding diets containing 0, 100, 200, 400, or 800 ppm of free gossypol were examined in 60 Holstein bull calves from 1 to 120 d of age. The concentrations of free gossypol were varied by varying amounts of cottonseed meals from three different sources. Cottonseed meal totaled 31% of each treatment ration. Feed consumption, BW, and blood parameters were collected on all calves at 30-d intervals throughout the trial. There were no significant differences between the groups for feed consumption, BW, or average daily gain. Changes in the group means for hematology and chemistry variables examined were modest and insufficient to distinguish diagnostically between safe and unsafe free gossypol concentrations for the different groups. Clinical evidence of disease was limited to the calves fed 400 or 800 ppm of free gossypol after 90 d of age. One calf in the group fed 400 ppm and 4 in the group fed 800 ppm died as a result of circulatory failure associated with gossypol consumption. We conclude from this study that a ration containing up to 200 ppm of free gossypol is safe, 400 ppm of free gossypol is toxic, and 800 ppm of free gossypol results in death losses. These results are compatible with previously reported naturally occurring toxicological outbreaks.