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Vogt A, Barth K, Waiblinger S, König von Borstel U. Can a gradual weaning and separation process reduce weaning distress in dam-reared dairy calves? A comparison with the 2-step method. J Dairy Sci 2024; 107:5942-5961. [PMID: 38490545 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2024-23809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2023] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/17/2024]
Abstract
The weaning and separation phase remains one of the biggest challenges for cow-calf contact systems, but a gradual process that better mimics the naturally occurring reduction in milk intake has not yet been scientifically investigated. Therefore, the aim of our study was to compare behavioral and physiological indicators of distress in 3-mo-old dam-reared dairy calves (with previous full-time cow-calf contact) weaned and separated either via gradual reduction of contact time with the dam (GR; 1 wk of half-day contact, 1 wk of morning contact, and 1 wk of fence-line contact before complete separation, n = 18) or via 2-step weaning using a nose flap (NF, 2 wk of access to the dam with a nose flap, 1 wk of fence-line contact before complete separation, n = 18). Behavior was recorded 1 wk before (or for lying 3 wk before) weaning start and during the 3 wk weaning and separation period with direct observations on 4 d/wk or via accelerometers (locomotor play, lying behavior). Blood and fecal samples were taken twice per week from weaning start until 3 wk after weaning start. Calves were weighed weekly. Statistical analysis was conducted using (generalized) linear mixed models. Over the whole weaning and separation phase, NF calves showed a stronger decrease in the number of lying bouts, amount of locomotor play, and ADG, as well as a higher increase in TMR feeding time compared with GR calves, whereas GR calves vocalized more often and showed more searching behavior than NF calves. Also, the neutrophil:lymphocyte ratio of NF calves was elevated on d 3 after insertion of the nose flaps compared with baseline, but showed no change for GR calves on any sampling day. Overall, results point toward a favorable effect of a gradual weaning strategy on reduction of weaning and separation distress in dam-reared dairy calves, but the method requires further improvement from the protocol used in our study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anina Vogt
- Division of Animal Husbandry, Behaviour and Welfare, Justus-Liebig-University of Giessen, 35392 Giessen, Germany.
| | - Kerstin Barth
- Institute of Organic Farming, Johann Heinrich von Thünen Institute, Federal Research Institute for Rural Areas, Forestry and Fisheries, 23847 Westerau, Germany
| | - Susanne Waiblinger
- Institute of Animal Welfare Science, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Uta König von Borstel
- Division of Animal Husbandry, Behaviour and Welfare, Justus-Liebig-University of Giessen, 35392 Giessen, Germany
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Krahn J, Foris B, Sheng K, Weary DM, von Keyserlingk MAG. Effects of group size on agonistic interactions in dairy cows: a descriptive study. Animal 2024; 18:101083. [PMID: 38377807 DOI: 10.1016/j.animal.2024.101083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2023] [Revised: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Group-housed cattle may engage in agonistic interactions over resources such as feed, which can negatively affect aspects of welfare. Little is known about how contextual factors such as group size influence agonistic behaviour. We explored the frequency of agonistic interactions at the feeder when cattle were housed in different-sized groups. We also explored the consistency of the directionality of agonistic interactions in dyads and of the number of agonistic interactions initiated by individuals across the group sizes. Four replicates of 50 cows each were assessed in two group-size phases. In Phase 1, cows were kept in one group of 50. In Phase 2, these same cows were divided into five groups of 10, maintaining stocking density (i.e., ratio of animals to lying stalls and feed bunk spaces). We measured agonistic replacements (i.e., interactions that result in one cow leaving the feed bin and another taking her place) at an electronic feeder using a validated algorithm. We used these data from Phase 1 to calculate individual Elo-ratings (a type of dominance score). Cows were then categorised into five dominance categories based upon these ratings. To ensure a consistent Elo-rating distribution between phases, two cows from each dominance category were randomly assigned to each small group of 10 cows. The mean ± SE number of replacements per cow was similar regardless of whether the cows were housed in groups of 50 (34.1 ± 2.4) or 10 (31.1 ± 4.5), although the groups of 10 were more variable. Further, 81.6 ± 7.7% (mean ± SD) of dyads had the same directionality across group sizes (i.e., the same individual won the majority of interactions in the dyad) and individuals were moderately consistent in the number of replacements they initiated (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.62 ± 0.11; mean ± SD). These results indicate that the relationship between group size and agonistic behaviour is complex; we discuss these challenges and suggest new avenues for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Krahn
- 2357 Main Mall, Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z6, Canada
| | - Borbala Foris
- 2357 Main Mall, Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z6, Canada
| | - Kehan Sheng
- 2357 Main Mall, Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z6, Canada
| | - Daniel M Weary
- 2357 Main Mall, Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z6, Canada
| | - Marina A G von Keyserlingk
- 2357 Main Mall, Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z6, Canada.
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Kern J, Jorgensen MW, Boerman JP, Erasmus M, Johnson JS, Pempek JA. Effect of repeated HPA axis stimulation on hair cortisol concentration, growth, and behavior in preweaned dairy cattle. J Anim Sci 2024; 102:skae171. [PMID: 38898575 PMCID: PMC11287870 DOI: 10.1093/jas/skae171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
The study objective was to investigate the effect of repeated hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis stimulation using synthetic adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) intramuscular injections on hair cortisol concentration, growth, and behavior in preweaned dairy calves. Twenty-seven Holstein calves were assigned to nine triads (based on sex and birth order) and randomly assigned to 1 of 3 treatments: 1) control (CON; 2 mL saline weekly); 2) moderate (MOD; alternating Cosyntropin [2 mcg/kg body weight (BW)] and saline weekly); or 3) frequent (FREQ; Cosyntropin [2 mcg/kg BW] weekly). Calves received their first injection on study day 0 (7 ± 1 d of age). Hair was collected from the tail switch between days -5 and -3 (baseline), 21, and 49 and analyzed for cortisol concentration. To verify the endogenous cortisol release by Cosyntropin during the treatment period, saliva was collected on days 0, 14, 28, and 42 before injection and every 15 min for 2 h after injection for analysis of salivary cortisol concentration. Calves were fitted with accelerometers to continuously monitor lying time, number of lying bouts, and lying bout duration throughout the study. Growth measures (BW, hip height, hip width) were recorded weekly. Data were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA (SAS, Version 9.4), and models included the fixed effects of treatment, time (min or study day), and interaction between treatment and time. Temperature humidity index was included as a continuous covariate in all models. We observed a treatment × min interaction (P < 0.0001), whereby salivary cortisol concentration was lower in CON calves compared to MOD and FREQ calves 15 to 120 min postinjection. While hair cortisol concentration was not influenced by treatment, concentration decreased from day 21 (1.28 ± 0.03 ng/mL) to 49 (0.93 ± 0.03 ng/mL). Average BW was similar across treatments (CON [59.4 ± 1.09 kg], MOD [58.6 ± 0.98 kg], and FREQ [57.6 ± 0.96 kg]; P = 0.50). There was no evidence to suggest a difference in average daily lying time (CON [18.5 ± 0.23 h/d], MOD [18.6 ± 0.23 h/d], and FREQ [18.5 ± 0.23 h/d]; P = 0.99). These results suggest that repeated HPA axis stimulation through Cosyntropin administration increased salivary cortisol concentration, but did not influence hair cortisol concentration, growth, or behavior in preweaned dairy calves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Kern
- Department of Animal Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | | | - Jacquelyn P Boerman
- Department of Animal Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Marisa Erasmus
- Department of Animal Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Jay S Johnson
- USDA-ARS, Livestock Behavior Research Unit, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Jessica A Pempek
- USDA-ARS, Livestock Behavior Research Unit, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
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Ramezani Gardaloud N, Guse C, Lidauer L, Steininger A, Kickinger F, Öhlschuster M, Auer W, Iwersen M, Drillich M, Klein-Jöbstl D. Short communications: an ear-attached accelerometer detects effects of regrouping on lying, rumination, and activity times in calves. Vet Res Commun 2023; 47:2333-2337. [PMID: 37391678 DOI: 10.1007/s11259-023-10151-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/02/2023]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to use a sensor-based accelerometer (ACC) to identify changes in lying, rumination, and activity times in weaned calves during the moving and regrouping process. Overall, 270 healthy Holstein calves (from approximately 16 regrouping events) at the age of approximately 4 months were enrolled and equipped with an ear-attached ACC (SMARTBOW, Smartbow GmbH/ Zoetis LLC). Sensor data were recorded for 5 d before (d -5) until 4 d after moving and regrouping (d 4). The day of regrouping was defined as d 0. Acceleration data were continuously processed by specific algorithms (developed by SMARTBOW) for lying, rumination, and activity. Lying, rumination, and activity times were averaged from d -5 to d -3 to generate a baseline value for each parameter. Parameters on d 0 to d 4 after regrouping were compared to this baseline. All parameters showed significant changes compared with the baseline at d 0. Significant decreases in rumination and inactive times were seen up to d 2. Lying time was significantly lower until d 3. The study results indicate that the ACC can be used to monitor the disruptive effects of regrouping on lying and rumination behaviors. Further research is necessary to elucidate how these changes have an impact on health, performance, and welfare and to evaluate how to reduce these potentially negative effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Ramezani Gardaloud
- Clinical Unit for Herd Health Management in Ruminants, Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University Clinic for Ruminants, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210, Vienna, Austria
- Smartbow GmbH / Zoetis LLC, Jutogasse 3, 4675, Weibern, Austria
| | - C Guse
- Clinical Unit for Herd Health Management in Ruminants, Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University Clinic for Ruminants, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - L Lidauer
- Smartbow GmbH / Zoetis LLC, Jutogasse 3, 4675, Weibern, Austria
| | - A Steininger
- Smartbow GmbH / Zoetis LLC, Jutogasse 3, 4675, Weibern, Austria
| | - F Kickinger
- Smartbow GmbH / Zoetis LLC, Jutogasse 3, 4675, Weibern, Austria
| | - M Öhlschuster
- Smartbow GmbH / Zoetis LLC, Jutogasse 3, 4675, Weibern, Austria
| | - W Auer
- Smartbow GmbH / Zoetis LLC, Jutogasse 3, 4675, Weibern, Austria
| | - M Iwersen
- Clinical Unit for Herd Health Management in Ruminants, Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University Clinic for Ruminants, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - M Drillich
- Clinical Unit for Herd Health Management in Ruminants, Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University Clinic for Ruminants, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - D Klein-Jöbstl
- Clinical Unit for Herd Health Management in Ruminants, Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University Clinic for Ruminants, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210, Vienna, Austria.
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The Effect of Placement and Group Size on the Use of an Automated Brush by Groups of Lactating Dairy Cattle. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13040760. [PMID: 36830547 PMCID: PMC9952420 DOI: 10.3390/ani13040760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Revised: 01/28/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Mechanical brushes are often provided on dairy farms to facilitate grooming. However, current brush designs do not provide data on their use, and thus little is known about the effects of group size and placement of brushes within the pen. The objectives of this study were to automatically detect brush use in cow groups and to investigate the influence of (1) group size and the corresponding cow-to-brush ratio and (2) brush placement in relation to the lying stalls and the feeding and drinking areas. We measured brush use in groups of 60, 48, 36, and 24 cows, with the brush placed either in the alley adjacent to the feed bunk and water trough or in the back alley. Cows used the brush for longer when it was placed in the feed/water alley compared to when placed in the back alley. Average brush use per cow increased when cows were housed in smaller groups, but the brush was never in use more than 50% of the day, regardless of group size. We conclude that brush use increases when availability is increased and when the brush is placed closer to the feed and water.
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Horback KM, Parsons TD. Judgement bias of group housed gestating sows predicted by behavioral traits, but not physical measures of welfare. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0264258. [PMID: 35213574 PMCID: PMC8880926 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0264258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Judgement bias testing has emerged as a potential tool for assessing affective states in animals. Researchers infer an animal's affective state based on an animal's response to an ambiguous stimulus that is intermediate to both the rewarded and punished conditioned stimuli. Animals can be classified as "optimistic" or having a positive affective state if the animal displays behaviors that suggest an increased expectation of reward in the face of ambiguous stimuli. Alternatively, animals can be classified "pessimistic" or having a negative affective state if the animal displays behaviors that suggest an increased expectation of punishment in the face of ambiguous stimuli. Recent reports in multiple species question what factors influence performance in judgement bias testing, and which may allow for erroneous conclusions regarding individual affective state. In order to better understand this concern, 25 female swine were subjected to behavioral assessments at critical rearing stages to determine response variability. These same individuals were then assessed for physical measures of welfare and judgement bias using the "go/no-go" task as breeding adults. Sows which were more aggressive approached the ambiguous, but not the positive, stimulus significantly faster than others. Both optimistic and pessimistic biases were observed despite all sows living in enriched housing, and, sows with more positive physical welfare measures (fewer skin lesions and healthy body condition) did not exhibit more optimistic judgement biases. Our data demonstrate that behavior traits, such as aggressiveness, can affect a sow's performance in a judgement bias test, while measures of physical health did not. We suggest that individual differences in behavior (e.g., bold-aggressive behavioral syndrome, or, proactive coping style) generate different emotional responses and can contribute to the animal's overall affective state more so than physical ailment. Our findings highlight the complexity of how different factors impact an animal's overall affective state and support the need for complementary measures in future JBT studies, including personality assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristina M. Horback
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis, CA, United States of America
| | - Thomas D. Parsons
- Department of Clinical Studies, Swine Teaching and Research Center, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Kennett Square, PA, United States of America
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Foris B, Lecorps B, Krahn J, Weary DM, von Keyserlingk MAG. The effects of cow dominance on the use of a mechanical brush. Sci Rep 2021; 11:22987. [PMID: 34837005 PMCID: PMC8626463 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-02283-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
An animal's social position within a group can influence its ability to perform important behaviours like eating and resting, but little is known about how social position affects the ability to express what are arguably less important but still rewarding behaviors, such as grooming. We set out to assess if dominance measured at the feeder is associated with increased use of a mechanical brush. Over a 2-year period, 161 dry cows were enrolled in a dynamically changing group of 20 individuals with access to a mechanical brush. We determined dominance using agonistic behaviors at the feeder and retrospectively analyzed brush use for the 12 most, and 12 least dominant individuals during the week before calving. Cows that were more dominant at the feeder used the brush more, especially during peak feeding times. Agonistic interactions at the brush did not differ between dominants and subordinates and were not related to brushing duration. These findings indicate that social position, calculated using competition for feed, affects mechanical brush access such that subordinates use the brush less than dominant cows independent of competition or time of day.
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Affiliation(s)
- Borbala Foris
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, The University of British Columbia, 2357 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z6, Canada
| | - Benjamin Lecorps
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, The University of British Columbia, 2357 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z6, Canada
| | - Joseph Krahn
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, The University of British Columbia, 2357 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z6, Canada
| | - Daniel M Weary
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, The University of British Columbia, 2357 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z6, Canada
| | - Marina A G von Keyserlingk
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, The University of British Columbia, 2357 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z6, Canada.
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Lecorps B, Welk A, Weary DM, von Keyserlingk MAG. Postpartum Stressors Cause a Reduction in Mechanical Brush Use in Dairy Cows. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:3031. [PMID: 34827764 PMCID: PMC8614528 DOI: 10.3390/ani11113031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2021] [Revised: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Dairy cows are often subjected to multiple post-partum stressors but how these stressors impact cows' affective states remain poorly understood. Negative affective states are often associated with reduced expression of low-resilience behaviors, so we explored whether cows would reduce their use of a brush after calving. Before calving, cows were offered the opportunity to use a mechanical brush once a week for 10 min. In Experiment 1, we explored whether cows reduced their use of a mechanical brush after parturition (compared to prepartum values) when subjected to the myriad of stressors typically experienced by cows at this time. In Experiment 2, we assessed the effect of cow-calf separation. Results from Experiment 1 showed that cows displayed a reduced brush use following parturition compared to the week before calving. In Experiment 2, we showed that cows given more time to bond with their calf, and who were separated more recently from their calf, showed a more pronounced reduction in brush use. Cows provided part-time contact with their calf for 29 days also reduced their brush use when they were permanently separated from their calf on day 30 after calving. These results suggest that cows experienced anhedonia and point to new directions for research on dairy cow affective states.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Marina A. G. von Keyserlingk
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, 2357 Main Mall, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z6, Canada; (B.L.); (A.W.); (D.M.W.)
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Van Os JMC, Goldstein SA, Weary DM, von Keyserlingk MAG. Stationary brush use in naive dairy heifers. J Dairy Sci 2021; 104:12019-12029. [PMID: 34364642 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2021-20467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Weaned dairy heifers are often housed in environments with few appropriate outlets for grooming or oral manipulation. Our objective was to characterize brush use by naive heifers, including patterns over time. In phase 1, groups of 4 heifers (n = 13 groups, 146.4 ± 9.1 d old, mean ± standard deviation; SD) were introduced to a bedded pack pen with 4 wall-mounted brushes (25.4 × 6.0 cm with 3.8-cm-long bristles). On d 1, 2, and 6 of exposure, continuous video recordings were used to observe 2 focal heifers per group for brush use (oral manipulation, grooming, and the sum of total brush use; all averaged at the group level). Latency to use a brush upon entering the pen was 3.4 ± 4.9 min (mean ± SD; range: 0.1 to 17.8 min among individuals). Heifers used the brushes for oral manipulation (39.7 ± 17.5% of brush use, mean ± SD) and grooming (60.3 ± 17.5%), primarily of their heads (89.9 ± 5.4% of grooming). In phase 2, heifers were moved in pairs (n = 13 pairs/treatment) to freestall pens either with (brush treatment) or without (control) brushes mounted inside the stalls for the first 5 d of phase 2 (d 8-12 of the study); on the last day (d 13 of the study), brushes were provided in both treatments. On d 8 (brush treatment) and 13 (both treatments), one focal heifer/pen was recorded for the same behaviors as in phase 1. Linear mixed models were used to evaluate brush use patterns across days (phase 1: d 1, 2, and 6; phase 2 brush treatment: d 8 vs. 13) and between treatments on d 13. In phase 1, brush use was greatest on d 1 [45.9 min; 95% confidence interval (CI): 33.2-63.3 min, back-transformed from natural-log values], decreased on d 2 (25.0 min, 95% CI: 18.4-34.0 min), but then remained steady until d 6 (21.0 min, 95% CI: 15.4-28.5 min); the initial reduction in total brush use was due to changes in grooming, but oral manipulation remained relatively static. In phase 2, heifers in the brush treatment showed similar usage on d 8 versus d 13 (3.8 vs. 3.7 min, 95% CI: 1.9-6.8 vs. 1.9-6.5 min). Compared with heifers with continuous brush access on d 8-12, those in the control treatment showed more brush use on d 13, both for oral manipulation (6.6 vs. 2.5 min, 95% CI: 3.8-11.1 vs. 1.3-4.5 min) and grooming (3.5 vs. 1.2 min, 95% CI: 1.9-5.7 vs. 0.5-2.3 min). Our study is the first to characterize stationary brush use in weaned dairy heifers. We conclude that, despite lacking previous experience, heifers use brushes for both grooming and oral manipulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer M C Van Os
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, The University of British Columbia, 2357 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z6, Canada
| | - Savannah A Goldstein
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, The University of British Columbia, 2357 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z6, Canada
| | - Daniel M Weary
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, The University of British Columbia, 2357 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z6, Canada
| | - Marina A G von Keyserlingk
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, The University of British Columbia, 2357 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z6, Canada.
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