Cervical and intracranial arterial anomalies in 70 patients with PHACE syndrome

Long-term clinical and radiological trajectories of craniocervical vasculopathy in children with PHACE syndrome

AIM

To describe the rates of stroke and craniocervical vasculopathy progression in children with posterior fossa malformations, hemangioma, arterial anomalies, coarctation of the aorta/cardiac defects, and eye abnormalities (PHACE) syndrome.

METHOD

A single-center, retrospective natural history study of children with PHACE syndrome. Clinical and sequential neuroimaging data were reviewed to study the characteristics and progression of vasculopathy and calculate the rates of arterial ischemic stroke (AIS) and transient ischemic stroke (TIA). Vasculopathy progression was defined as worsening or new vascular findings on follow-up magnetic resonance angiography.

RESULTS

Thirty-four children with cerebrovascular abnormalities at the PHACE syndrome diagnosis were studied (age range = 2 to 18 years, 85% females). Median age at the initial diagnosis was 5.5 months (interquartile range = 1-52 months); median age at the last follow-up was 8 years 6 months (range = 2-18 years). Overall, 10 (29%) patients had radiological progression of their vasculopathy, with a cumulative progression-free rate of 73% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.57-0.89), and a cumulative TIA-free and AIS-free rate of 87% (95% CI = 0.745-0.99). Vasculopathy was continuously progressive in six patients (18%) at the last follow-up. Three patients (9%) had TIA and all had progressive vasculopathy. One patient had presumed perinatal AIS at the initial PHACE diagnosis, while no other patient experienced an AIS during the follow-up.

INTERPRETATION

In children with PHACE syndrome, craniocervical vasculopathy is non-progressive and asymptomatic in the majority of cases. The risk of ischemic stroke in these children is very low. Larger and prospective studies are necessary to confirm these findings.

PHACE syndrome: a case report and a comprehensive review

Introduction and importance

PHACE syndrome is a rare neurocutaneous disorder characterized by large segmental hemangiomas on the face and is associated with multiple developmental defects. PHACE stands for posterior fossa malformations, hemangiomas, arterial abnormalities, cardiac defects, and eye anomalies, with the most common manifestation being hemangioma in the cervico-facial region in early childhood.

Case presentation

The authors report a case of a 15-year-female with complaints of facial hemangioma which on multisystemic imaging showed features of central nervous system (CNS) anomalies that led to the diagnosis of PHACE syndrome. The patient was started on propanolol which decreased the size of hemangioma in follow-up visits.

Clinical discussion

The hemangioma in the frontotemporal and frontonasal area of the face are associated more with CNS and cardiovascular anomalies needing a detailed multisystem approach. CNS anomalies include posterior cerebral fossa enlargement, cystic dilation of the fourth ventricle, arachnoid cyst, and cerebellar hypoplasia which were present in our case. Propanolol is considered the first-line drug for facial hemangioma with reported evidence of remarkable improvement and good tolerance. However, regular follow-up of the patient is needed to rule out any recurrence.

Conclusion

PHACE syndrome, although being a rare occurrence, must be kept as a differential diagnosis in infants and children with facial hemangioma. Imaging modalities like MRI/magnetic resonance arteriography must be used to rule out possible associations related to PHACE syndrome and focus on early treatment to prevent possible complications.

Multicenter Study of Long-Term Outcomes and Quality of Life in PHACE Syndrome after Age 10

OBJECTIVE

To characterize long-term outcomes of PHACE syndrome.

STUDY DESIGN

Multicenter study with cross-sectional interviews and chart review of individuals with definite PHACE syndrome ≥10 years of age. Data from charts were collected across multiple PHACE-related topics. Data not available in charts were collected from patients directly. Likert scales were used to assess the impact of specific findings. Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) scales were used to assess quality of life domains.

RESULTS

A total of 104/153 (68%) individuals contacted participated in the study at a median of 14 years of age (range 10-77 years). There were infantile hemangioma (IH) residua in 94.1%. Approximately one-half had received laser treatment for residual IH, and the majority (89.5%) of participants were satisfied or very satisfied with the appearance. Neurocognitive manifestations were common including headaches/migraines (72.1%), participant-reported learning differences (45.1%), and need for individualized education plans (39.4%). Cerebrovascular arteriopathy was present in 91.3%, with progression identified in 20/68 (29.4%) of those with available follow-up imaging reports. Among these, 6/68 (8.8%) developed moyamoya vasculopathy or progressive stenoocclusion, leading to isolated circulation at or above the level of the circle of Willis. Despite the prevalence of cerebrovascular arteriopathy, the proportion of those with ischemic stroke was low (2/104; 1.9%). PROMIS global health scores were lower than population norms by at least 1 SD.

CONCLUSIONS

PHACE syndrome is associated with long-term, mild to severe morbidities including IH residua, headaches, learning differences, and progressive arteriopathy. Primary and specialty follow-up care is critical for PHACE patients into adulthood.

Numerical flow experiment for assessing predictors for cerebrovascular accidents in patients with PHACES syndrome

There is an increased risk of cerebrovascular accidents (CVA) in individuals with PHACES, yet the precise causes are not well understood. In this analysis, we aimed to examine the role of arteriopathy in PHACES syndrome as a potential contributor to CVA. We analyzed clinical and radiological data from 282 patients with suspected PHACES syndrome. We analyzed clinical features, including the presence of infantile hemangioma and radiological features based on magnetic resonance angiography or computed tomography angiography, in individuals with PHACES syndrome according to the Garzon criteria. To analyze intravascular blood flow, we conducted a simulation based on the Fluid-Structure Interaction (FSI) method, utilizing radiological data. The collected data underwent statistical analysis. Twenty patients with PHACES syndrome were included. CVAs were noted in 6 cases. Hypoplasia (p = 0.03), severe tortuosity (p < 0.01), absence of at least one main cerebral artery (p < 0.01), and presence of persistent arteries (p = 0.01) were associated with CVAs, with severe tortuosity being the strongest predictor. The in-silico analysis showed that the combination of hypoplasia and severe tortuosity resulted in a strongly thrombogenic environment. Severe tortuosity, combined with hypoplasia, is sufficient to create a hemodynamic environment conducive to thrombus formation and should be considered high-risk for cerebrovascular accidents (CVAs) in PHACES patients.

Non-vascular intracranial lesions in three children with PHACE association

PHACE (posterior fossa malformations, hemangiomas, arterial anomalies, cardiac anomalies, eye anomalies) association has many recognized clinical features. A link between PHACE and non-vascular intracranial lesions has not been well-described. We report three pediatric patients with PHACE and non-vascular intracranial lesions.

Cerebral Arteriopathies of Childhood - Current Approaches

Up to more than half of previously healthy children presenting with their first arterial ischemic stroke have a cerebral arteriopathy. Cerebral arteriopathies during childhood can be congenital, reflecting abnormal vessel development, or acquired when caused by disruption of vascular homeostasis. Distinguishing different types of cerebral arteriopathies in children can be challenging but of great clinical value as they may dictate different disease and treatment courses, and clinical and radiologic outcomes. Furthermore, children with stroke due to a specific arteriopathy exhibit distinctive features when compared to those with stroke due to other causes or a different type of arteriopathy. These features become crucial in the management of pediatric stroke by choosing appropriate diagnostic and treatment strategies. The objective of this article is to provide the reader with a comprehensive up-to-date review of the classification, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and outcome of cerebral arteriopathies in children.

The VASCERN-VASCA working group diagnostic and management pathways for severe and/or rare infantile hemangiomas

The European Reference Network on Rare Multisystemic Vascular Diseases (VASCERN), is dedicated to gathering the best expertise in Europe and provide accessible cross-border healthcare to patients with rare vascular diseases. Infantile Hemangiomas (IH) are benign vascular tumors of infancy that rapidly growth in the first weeks of life, followed by stabilization and spontaneous regression. In rare cases the extent, the localization or the number of lesions may cause severe complications that need specific and careful management. Severe IH may be life-threatening due to airway obstruction, liver or cardiac failure or may harbor a risk of functional impairment, severe pain, and/or significant and permanent disfigurement. Rare IHs include syndromic variants associated with extracutaneous abnormalities (PHACE and LUMBAR syndromes), and large segmental hemangiomas. There are publications that focus on evidence-based medicine on propranolol treatment for IH and consensus statements on the management of rare infantile hemangiomas mostly focused on PHACES syndrome. The Vascular Anomalies Working Group (VASCA-WG) decided to develop a diagnostic and management pathway for severe and rare IHs with a Nominal Group Technique (NGT), a well-established, structured, multistep, facilitated group meeting technique used to generate consensus statements. The pathway was drawn following two face-to-face meetings and in multiple web meetings to facilitate discussion, and by mail to avoid the influence of most authoritative members. The VASCA-WG has produced this opinion statement reflecting strategies developed by experts and patient representatives on how to approach patients with severe and rare IH in a practical manner; we present an algorithmic view of the results of our work.

Segmental facial infantile haemangiomas in the era of propranolol: evaluation at 6 years of age

BACKGROUND

The long-term evolution of children with segmental facial infantile haemangioma (SFIH) treated with propranolol remains unstudied.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study was to evaluate the neurodevelopmental features of children with SFIH treated with propranolol at 6 years of age.

METHODS

This retrospective case series study was conducted from January 2008 to June 2020 using data from medical files, patient examinations and appointments spanning 6 years. To be included, patients should present SFIH and have previously received propranolol. A complete physical examination, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the head, echocardiography and ophthalmologic examination should have been performed. Neurodevelopmental features were divided into cognition, audition, vision, orality, motor skills and the occurrence of new symptoms.

RESULTS

Thirty children with SFIH were included. Of these, 11 presented criteria of PHACES. Evaluation of neurodevelopmental features of the children at 6 years of age showed learning difficulties in one case but grade skipping in three cases. There were six cases of unilateral hearing loss that had not been diagnosed at birth, two of oral difficulties and one of minor hypotonia. Early headache was primarily reported as the main new outcome. All children were treated with propranolol, with three following oral steroid therapy. No severe adverse effects were reported. The median length of treatment with propranolol was 16 months, and the median age at treatment cessation was 21 months. Analysis based on segment implication showed the median length of treatment to vary from 12 months (if S3 was spared) to 25 months (if at least S3 was involved). Vascular laser therapy was used in 16 patients (53.3%) and surgery in four.

CONCLUSION

In this case series, children with SFIH, including patients with PHACES criteria, presented a good tolerance of propranolol, as well as encouraged neurodevelopmental data. Segmental implication appears to have a significant impact on treatment duration and associated complications.

Vascular lesions of the pediatric orbit: A radiological walkthrough

Vascular anomalies of the pediatric orbit represent a heterogeneous group that include both vascular tumors and vascular malformations. The disorder may initially be silent and then associated with symptoms and/or function damage, depending on the type of vascular anomaly and its extension. Vascular tumors include benign, locally aggressive (or borderline) and malignant forms while vascular malformations are divided into "simple", "combined" and syndromic, or "low flow" or "high flow". Both entities can arise in isolation or as part of syndromes. In this review, we describe the imaging findings of the vascular lesions of the orbit in the pediatric population, which are key to obtain a correct diagnosis and to guide the appropriate treatment in the light of the new genetic and molecular discoveries, and the role of the radiologist in their multidisciplinary management. We will also touch upon the main syndromes associated with orbital vascular abnormalities.

Anterior cerebral artery trifurcation with infraoptic origin and contralateral A1 segment absence

PURPOSE

To describe an uncommon anatomical variant of the anterior cerebral artery and the imaging findings.

METHODS

A 2-month-old infant with known history of atrial and ventricular septal defects was admitted to our institution for evaluation and management of growth failure. Given the clinical presentation and medical history, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain and MR angiography (MRA) were performed to exclude congenital hypopituitarism and any vascular abnormality.

RESULTS

Time of flight MRA revealed trifurcation of the anterior cerebral artery with one of the vessels arising from the ophthalmic segment of the right internal carotid artery; thus, the A1 segment of the left anterior cerebral artery (ACA) was absent, and the right posterior cerebral artery (PCA) had a fetal origin.

CONCLUSION

Anatomical variants of the cerebral circulation are asymptomatic and found incidentally. Knowledge of these variants and careful examination of CT/MRI angiograms are important for diagnosis and treatment planning.

The Forgotten Phacomatoses: A Neuroimaging Review of Rare Neurocutaneous Disorders

Phakomatoses, or neurocutaneous syndromes, are a heterogeneous group of rare genetic disorders that predominantly affect structures arising from the embryonic ectoderm, namely the skin, eye globe, retina, tooth enamel, and central nervous system. Other organs are also involved in some syndromes, mainly cardiovascular, pulmonary, renal, and musculoskeletal systems. Currently, more than sixty distinct entities belonging to this category have been described in the literature. Common phakomatoses include conditions like Neurofibromatosis and Tuberous sclerosis. Several review papers have focused on various aspects of these common conditions, including clinical presentation, genetic and molecular basis, and neuroimaging features. In this review, we focus on rare neurocutaneous syndromes: Melanophakomatoses (Ie, Neurocutaneous Melanosis, and Incontinentia Pigmenti), Vascular Phakomatoses (Ie, Ataxia Telangiectasia and PHACE Syndrome), and other conditions such as Cowden Syndrome, Basal Nevus Syndrome, Schwannomatosis, Progressive Facial Hemiatrophy, Gomez-Lopez-Hernandez Syndrome, Wyburn-Mason Syndrome, CHILD Syndrome, and Proteus Syndrome. We also review the neuroradiologic manifestations of these conditions as a guide for neurologists and neuroradiologists in their daily practice.

Arteriopathy in pediatric stroke: an underestimated clinical entity

BACKGROUND

Pediatric arterial ischemic stroke (AIS), which was thought to be a rare disorder, is being increasingly recognized as an important cause of neurological morbidity, thanks to new advances in neuroimaging.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to review the main etiologies of stroke due to arteriopathy in children.

METHODS

Using a series of cases from our institution, we addressed its epidemiological aspects, physiopathology, imaging findings from CT, MR angiography, MR conventional sequences and MR DWI, and nuclear medicine findings.

RESULTS

Through discussion of the most recent classification for childhood AIS (Childhood AIS Standardized Classification and Diagnostic Evaluation, CASCADE), we propose a modified classification based on the anatomical site of disease, which includes vasculitis, varicella, arterial dissection, moyamoya, fibromuscular dysplasia, Takayasu's arteritis and genetic causes (such as ACTA-2 mutation, PHACE syndrome and ADA-2 deficiency). We have detailed each of these separately. Conclusions: Prompt recognition of AIS and thorough investigation for potential risk factors are crucial for a better outcome. In this scenario, neurovascular imaging plays an important role in diagnosing AIS and identifying children at high risk of recurrent stroke.

PHACES Syndrome and Associated Anomalies: Risk Associated With Small and Large Facial Hemangiomas

OBJECTIVE. PHACES syndrome includes posterior fossa malformations, hemangioma, arterial anomalies, coarctation of the aorta and cardiac defects, eye abnormalities, and sternal defect with or without supraumbilical raphe. Usually, brain imaging is performed when facial hemangiomas are larger than 5 cm. Data on associated anomalies regardless of hemangioma size are sparse. The objective of this study was to determine, first, the prevalence of PHACES-like associated anomalies in a large sample of infants with all sizes of segmental facial or periorbital focal infantile hemangioma and, second, whether the cutaneous localization of the hemangioma correlates with the type of anomalies present. MATERIALS AND METHODS. The records of all patients of a vascular anomalies practice who had a diagnosis of segmental facial or periorbital focal infantile hemangioma and who had clinical photographs and brain MRI available were reviewed. The clinical photographs were reviewed to determine the localization by segment and lateralization. MRI was reviewed by two experienced pediatric radiologists. If present, cardiovascular anomalies, sternal defects, and eye anomalies were recorded. The criteria for definite and possible PHACES were used. RESULTS. The study included 122 children (90 girls, 32 boys; mean age, 16.6 months). Forty-five (36.9%) children had a facial infantile hemangioma larger than 5 cm. Twenty-two patients (18.0%) had PHACES or possible PHACES syndrome. Cerebrovascular structural anomalies were seen in 14 of 22 and brain anomalies in 6 of 22 patients with PHACES syndrome but in none and one of the patients in the group without PHACES (p < .001). Cardiovascular anomalies were seen in six patients and ocular anomalies in eight patients. All but one of them had PHACES syndrome. CONCLUSION. Clinical concern about associated extracutaneous anomalies is warranted for all children with facial segmental or periorbital focal infantile hemangiomas, including those with small hemangiomas. Further studies are needed to correlate cerebrovascular anomalies with the clinical evolution of hemangiomas and their effects on cerebral perfusion.

Vascular anomalies: Classification and management

Vascular anomalies are broadly classified into two major categories: vascular tumors and vascular malformations. Most vascular anomalies are caused by sporadic mosaic gene mutations, and recent genetic studies have advanced our understanding of the molecular pathways involved in their pathogenesis. These findings have suggested new therapeutic approaches to vascular anomalies, focusing on their pathogenetic mechanism. This chapter seeks to integrate an improved molecular understanding within the updated classification system of the International Society for Study of Vascular Anomalies. We emphasize the genetic, radiologic, and interventional aspects of diagnosis and management in hopes of allowing improved multidisciplinary collaboration surrounding these complex and interesting anomalies.

Arterial Spin-Labeling Perfusion for PHACE Syndrome

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Arterial stroke is a rare-but-reported complication in patients with posterior fossa brain malformations, hemangiomas, arterial anomalies, coarctation of the aorta and cardiac defects, and eye abnormalities (PHACE) syndrome. Currently, stroke risk is inferred by the severity of arterial anomalies identified on MRA, though no evidenced-based data exist. The purpose of our study was to determine whether arterial spin-labeling MR imaging perfusion can detect alterations in CBF in patients with PHACE syndrome.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Records were reviewed from 3 institutions for all patients with PHACE syndrome who underwent arterial spin-labeling from 2000 to 2019. CBF was qualitatively investigated with arterial spin-labeling to determine whether there was decreased or normal perfusion. Arterial anomalies were characterized on MRA imaging, and parenchymal brain findings were evaluated on conventional MR imaging sequences.

RESULTS

Forty-one patients with PHACE syndrome had arterial spin-labeling imaging. There were 30 females and 11 males (age range, 7 days to 15 years). Of the 41 patients, 10 (24%) had decreased CBF signal corresponding to a major arterial territory. Ten of 10 patients had decreased CBF signal in the anterior circulation, 2/10 had decreased anterior and posterior circulation CBF signal, 2/10 had decreased bilateral anterior circulation CBF signal, and 1/10 had globally decreased CBF signal. Forty of 41 (97.5%) patients had at least 1 arteriopathy, and in those with decreased CBF signal, the arteriopathy corresponded to the CBF signal alteration in 10/10 patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Arterial spin-labeling can potentially characterize hemodynamic changes in patients with PHACE syndrome.

The spectrum of brain malformations and disruptions in twins

Twins have an increased risk for congenital malformations and disruptions, including defects in brain morphogenesis. We analyzed data on brain imaging, zygosity, sex, and fetal demise in 56 proband twins and 7 less affected co-twins with abnormal brain imaging and compared them to population-based data and to a literature series. We separated our series into malformations of cortical development (MCD, N = 39), cerebellar malformations without MCD (N = 13), and brain disruptions (N = 11). The MCD group included 37/39 (95%) with polymicrogyria (PMG), 8/39 (21%) with pia-ependymal clefts (schizencephaly), and 15/39 (38%) with periventricular nodular heterotopia (PNH) including 2 with PNH but not PMG. Cerebellar malformations were found in 19 individuals including 13 with a cerebellar malformation only and another 6 with cerebellar malformation and MCD. The pattern varied from diffuse cerebellar hypoplasia to classic Dandy-Walker malformation. Brain disruptions were seen in 11 individuals with hydranencephaly, porencephaly, or white matter loss without cysts. Our series included an expected statistically significant excess of monozygotic (MZ) twin pairs (22/41 MZ, 54%) compared to population data (482/1448 MZ, 33.3%; p = .0110), and an unexpected statistically significant excess of dizygotic (DZ) twins (19/41, 46%) compared to the literature cohort (1/46 DZ, 2%; p < .0001. Recurrent association with twin-twin transfusion syndrome, intrauterine growth retardation, and other prenatal factors support disruption of vascular perfusion as the most likely unifying cause.

Utilisation of advanced MRI techniques to understand neurovascular complications of PHACE syndrome: a case of arterial stenosis and dissection

PHACE syndrome is a rare disorder with posterior fossa brain malformations, segmental infantile haemangiomas, arterial anomalies, cardiac defects and eye anomalies. Cerebral and cervical arterial abnormalities occur commonly in these patients, predisposing subjects with PHACE syndrome to neurovascular complications including migraine-like headaches, moyamoya vasculopathy, arterial dissection and arterial ischaemia stroke. We leveraged institutional MRI protocols developed for adult neurovascular disease to better elucidate the pathogenesis of the arterial alternations observed in PHACE. Using high-resolution vessel wall and 4D flow MRI, we demonstrated enhancement, focal dissection and altered blood flow in a 7-year-old girl with PHACE syndrome. This is the first-time vessel wall imaging has been used to detail the known arterial changes in PHACE, and these findings may indicate that progressive vascular narrowing and vessel wall changes/inflammation are a factor in chronic headaches and other arterial complications seen in subjects with PHACE syndrome.

Management of PHACES syndrome: Risk of stroke and its prevention from a neurosurgical perspective

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

A multidisciplinary approach for PHACES is essential. A meticulous diagnostic and treatment protocol for PHACES patients with cerebrovascular anomalies within the intermediate and high risk strata for ischemic stroke is presented. We also differentiate the vasculopathy associated with PHACES syndrome from moyamoya angiopathy.

METHODS

Medical records and radiological imaging were reviewed. After initial magnetic resonance imaging/angiography (MRI/MRA), H₂¹⁵O-PET scan (baseline and Acetazolamide challenge) was performed in three patients and 6-vessel cerebral angiography was performed in two patients. Two patients with significant intracranial cerebrovascular anomalies underwent cerebral revascularization.

RESULTS

Each patient presented with a facial hemangioma at birth and additional cerebrovascular anomalies ranging from hypoplasia to steno-occlusive changes of intracranial cerebral arteries. Additional involvement of the cardiovascular system was observed in two patients. Additional to MRI/MRA, a H₂¹⁵O-PET helped stratify the three patients into intermediate (n=1) and high risk groups (n=2). The high-risk group patients underwent individualized cerebral revascularization for future stroke prevention. The patient in intermediate risk group will be followed. Cerebrovascular angiopathy seen in all patients was typical for PHACES without moyamoya and was not progressive at follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients within the intermediate and high-risk strata for ischemic stroke must undergo a 6-vessel cerebral angiography and further hemodynamic evaluation to indicate need for cerebral revascularization to prevent ischemic stroke. Non-progressive vasculopathy associated with PHACES can itself be hemodynamically relevant for neurosurgical intervention. This vasculopathy is distinct from moyamoya angiopathy, which can occur in conjunction with PHACES, resulting in concurrent progressive vasculopathy that would otherwise be absent.

Moyamoya angiopathy in PHACE syndrome not associated with RNF213 variants

Moyamoya angiopathy is a rare vasculopathy with stenosis and/or occlusion of bilateral intracranial parts of internal carotid arteries and/or proximal parts of middle and anterior cerebral arteries. PHACE syndrome is characterized by large segmental hemangiomas in the cervical-facial region. Both conditions are known to be associated in rare cases. Recently, it was discussed in the literature that RNF213 variants could be etiologically involved in this association. Here, we describe a childhood case with this rare co-occurrence in which we did not identify any rare RNF213 variant. The clinical and genetic backgrounds are discussed.

[Infantile haemangioma: an update]

Infantile haemangioma (IH) are the most frequent skin tumors in childhood. The diagnosis is usually established from the clinical picture and typical course of growth. Sectional imaging procedures are indicated in segmental, especially facial haemangiomas. The vast majority of IH are uncomplicated and do not require any treatment. In complicated IH, treatment should be initiated as soon as possible in order to avoid permanent damage. Propranolol is the treatment of choice for complicated IH.

Neuroimaging of Pediatric Arteriopathies

Pediatric arteriopathies are increasingly recognized in school-aged children with a variety of presenting symptoms ranging from headache, seizures, encephalopathy, and neuropsychiatric symptoms as well as focal neurologic deficits due to acute ischemic strokes. However, unlike the adult stroke population, there are differences in the clinical manifestations, the stroke mechanism, and risk factors in pediatric ischemic stroke. There has been increasing awareness and recognition of pediatric cerebral arteriopathies as a predominant stroke etiology. Prompt diagnosis of arteriopathies is essential to limit injury and prevent recurrent stroke. Based on predominant vessels involved and clinical symptoms, these arteriopathies can be broadly divided into two categories: large-medium size arteriopathies and small vessel arteriopathies. Each category can be further divided into inflammatory and noninflammatory according to their etiologies. The ability to distinguish between inflammatory and noninflammatory etiologies carries major prognostic implications for acute management and secondary stroke prevention as well as screening for systemic complications and counseling.

Moyamoya syndrome and PHACE syndrome: clinical and radiographic characterization of the intracranial arteriopathy and response to surgical revascularization

OBJECTIVE

PHACE syndrome (PHACES) has been linked to cervical and cerebral vascular anomalies, including persistent embryonic anastomoses and progressive steno-occlusive disease. However, no prior studies have documented the long-term response of PHACES patients with moyamoya disease to surgical revascularization with pial or myosynangiosis. The authors present their experience with 8 consecutive patients with PHACES and moyamoya disease.

METHODS

Retrospective review of patients who underwent pial synangiosis revascularization for moyamoya disease with concurrent diagnosis of PHACES.

RESULTS

A total of 8 patients out of 456 surgically treated moyamoya patients had a diagnosis of PHACES. All patients were female, and their average age at the time of surgical treatment was 9.3 years (range 1.8-25.8 years). Five patients had associated basilar artery anomalies or stenosis. All patients had symptomatic narrowing of the petrous segment of the internal carotid artery with tortuous collateralization. Three patients underwent unilateral pial or myo-synangiosis and 5 underwent bilateral procedures. The average hospital length of stay was 5.0 days (range 3-7 days). There were no postoperative complications. Follow-up ranged from 8 to 160 months (average 56 months). Seven of 8 patients have had follow-up angiograms and all had Matsushima grade A or B collateralization without progression of stenosis in other locations. All patients had reduced cortical FLAIR signal on 6-month follow-up MRI and no evidence of new radiographic or clinical strokes.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with moyamoya disease and PHACES had an intracranial arteriopathy characterized by ectactic anterior vasculature with concomitant basilar artery stenosis, and were all female. The patients had both radiographic and clinical responses to pial synangiosis. The surgical treatment of these patients can be challenging given facial hemangiomas located near the surgical field. Patients with unilateral disease did not have evidence of progression in other cerebral circulation during the given follow-up period.

The Rare Neurocutaneous Disorders: Update on Clinical, Molecular, and Neuroimaging Features

Phakomatoses, also known as neurocutaneous disorders, comprise a vast number of entities that predominantly affect structures originated from the ectoderm such as the central nervous system and the skin, but also the mesoderm, particularly the vascular system. Extensive literature exists about the most common phakomatoses, namely neurofibromatosis, tuberous sclerosis, von Hippel-Lindau and Sturge-Weber syndrome. However, recent developments in the understanding of the molecular underpinnings of less common phakomatoses have sparked interest in these disorders. In this article, we review the clinical features, current pathogenesis, and modern neuroimaging findings of melanophakomatoses, vascular phakomatoses, and other rare neurocutaneous syndromes that may also include tissue overgrowth or neoplastic predisposition.

PHACE syndrome: clinical manifestations, diagnostic criteria, and management

Infantile hemangioma can be linked to other organ malformations. In 1996, PHACE syndrome was first defined as the association of large and segmental infantile hemangioma, usually on the face, head, or cervical region, with malformations of the posterior fossa of the brain, arterial anomalies of the central nervous system, coarctation of the aorta, cardiac defects, and ocular abnormalities. Over 300 cases of PHACE syndrome have been reported, and it is cconsidered one of the most common neurocutaneous vascular disorders in childhood. Knowledge of the features and locations of lesions that imply a greater risk of systemic involvement is crucial for the diagnosis and proper management of PHACE syndrome patients. This review highlights the diagnostic criteria for PHACE syndrome, the imaging workup for extracutaneous involvement, the treatment of infantile hemangioma, and the importance of a multidisciplinary approach in the management of these patients.

Neurocristopathies: New insights 150 years after the neural crest discovery

The neural crest (NC) is a transient, multipotent and migratory cell population that generates an astonishingly diverse array of cell types during vertebrate development. These cells, which originate from the ectoderm in a region lateral to the neural plate in the neural fold, give rise to neurons, glia, melanocytes, chondrocytes, smooth muscle cells, odontoblasts and neuroendocrine cells, among others. Neurocristopathies (NCP) are a class of pathologies occurring in vertebrates, especially in humans that result from the abnormal specification, migration, differentiation or death of neural crest cells during embryonic development. Various pigment, skin, thyroid and hearing disorders, craniofacial and heart abnormalities, malfunctions of the digestive tract and tumors can also be considered as neurocristopathies. In this review we revisit the current classification and propose a new way to classify NCP based on the embryonic origin of the affected tissues, on recent findings regarding the molecular mechanisms that drive NC formation, and on the increased complexity of current molecular embryology techniques.

Current perspectives on the optimal management of infantile hemangioma

Infantile hemangiomas (IHs) are the most common benign tumor of infancy. As our understanding of their pathobiology has evolved, treatment has become more focused and tailored to specifically treat IH while minimizing adverse effects. Propranolol has gained FDA approval as the first medical therapy for a traditionally surgical disease. This review provides readers with an overview of IH, treatment modalities, and addresses specific considerations in IH disease management.

[Research progresses in the pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment of infantile hemangioma with PHACE syndrome]

Infant hemangioma, the most common benign tumor in children, is characterized by rapid proliferation, followed by slower spontaneous involution. However, some patients with facial segmental hemangioma are associated with PHACE syndrome. PHACE syndrome is characterized by vascular nerve and vascular cutaneous lesions of multiple systemic systems, often resulting in structural and functional impairments. Recent studies have demonstrated that the possible pathogeneses of PHACE syndrome mainly include hypoxia, abnormality of mesodermal vascular endothelial cells, genetic abnormality, and abnormality of interstitial mesenchymal stem cells. The current medications for hemangioma with PHACE syndrome include beta blockers, glucocorticoids, and mTOR inhibitors. This review article mainly describes the pathogenesis, diagnoses and treatments of PHACE syndrome, in order to provide directions for diagnosis and treatment of this disorder.

Cardio-cephalic neural crest syndrome: A novel hypothesis of vascular neurocristopathy

A novel hypothesis proposes that "cardio-cephalic neural crest (NC) syndrome," i.e. cephalic NC including cardiac NC, contributes to the concurrent occurrence of vascular diseases in the cardio- and cerebrovascular regions. NC is a transient structure present in early embryogenesis. Cephalic NC provides mesenchymal cells to the vascular media in these regions. Concurrent cardio- and cerebrovascular lesions have been reported in PHACE syndrome, ACTA2 mutation syndrome, and less frequently in the spontaneous occlusion of the circle of Willis (so-called moyamoya disease). Cardiovascular lesions in these syndromes include coarctation of the aorta, persistent truncus arteriosus, patent ductus arteriosus, and coronary artery disease, and cerebrovascular lesions include agenesis and stenosis/occlusion of the internal carotid arteries, and moyamoya phenomenon. These concurrent vascular lesions both in the cardio- and cerebrovascular regions might be related to cephalic NC. This hypothesis, although not proven, may facilitate a better understanding of the above-mentioned NC-related vascular pathologies and lead to appropriate diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for clinicians and chart future direction for researchers.

Structural malformations of the brain, eye, and pituitary gland in PHACE syndrome

PHACE syndrome is the association of segmental facial hemangiomas with congenital arterial, brain, cardiac, and ocular anomalies. Structural brain malformations affect 41-52% of PHACE patients and can be associated with focal neurologic deficits, developmental delays, and/or intellectual disability. To better characterize the spectrum of structural brain and other intracranial anomalies in PHACE syndrome, MRI scans of the head/neck were retrospectively reviewed in 55 patients from the PHACE Syndrome International Clinical Registry and Genetic Repository. All registry patients with a diagnosis of definite PHACE syndrome who had MRI scans of satisfactory quality were included. Of 55 patients, 34 (62%) demonstrated ≥1 non-vascular intracranial anomaly; structural brain malformations were present in 19 (35%). There was no difference in the prevalence of brain anomalies between genders. Brain anomalies were more likely in patients with S1 and/or S2 distribution of facial hemangioma. The most common structural brain defects were cerebellar hypoplasia (25%) and fourth ventricle abnormalities (13%). Dandy-Walker complex and malformations of cortical development were present in 9% and 7%, respectively. Extra-axial findings such as pituitary anomalies (18%) and intracranial hemangiomas (18%) were also observed. Six patients (11%) had anomalies of the globes or optic nerve/chiasm detectable on MRI. Brain malformations comprise a diverse group of structural developmental anomalies that are common in patients with PHACE syndrome. Along with brain malformations, numerous abnormalities of the pituitary, meninges, and globes were observed, highlighting the need for careful radiologic assessment of these structures in the neuroimaging workup for PHACE syndrome.

Imaging in cutis laxa syndrome caused by a dominant negative ALDH18A1 mutation, with hypotheses for intracranial vascular tortuosity and wide perivascular spaces

The autosomal dominant progeroid form of cutis laxa is a recently identified multiple congenital anomaly disorder characterized by thin, wrinkled skin, a progeroid appearance, intra-uterine growth retardation, postnatal growth restriction, psychomotor developmental delay, microcephaly, cataract, hypotonia and contractures. De novo heterozygous mutations in ALDH18A1 have been described in this condition. We present neuroimaging abnormalities in three patients. One patient had intracranial arterial and venous tortuosity, widened ventricular and extra-axial cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) spaces, wide perivascular spaces and increased T2 signal intensity in the cerebral white matter over time. The second patient had vascular tortuosity. The third patient had prominent ventricular and extra-axial cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) spaces on CT. We propose an embryological mechanism for the development of intracranial vascular tortuosity and discuss the anatomical basis of wide perivascular spaces in relation to this syndrome. Although we do not know the clinical implications of these cerebral vascular anomalies, we suggest inclusion of neuroimaging in the baseline evaluation of these patients.

Clinical and Imaging Characteristics of Arteriopathy Subtypes in Children with Arterial Ischemic Stroke: Results of the VIPS Study

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Childhood arteriopathies are rare but heterogenous, and difficult to diagnose and classify, especially by nonexperts. We quantified clinical and imaging characteristics associated with childhood arteriopathy subtypes to facilitate their diagnosis and classification in research and clinical settings.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The Vascular Effects of Infection in Pediatric Stroke (VIPS) study prospectively enrolled 355 children with arterial ischemic stroke (2010-2014). A central team of experts reviewed all data to diagnose childhood arteriopathy and classify subtypes, including arterial dissection and focal cerebral arteriopathy-inflammatory type, which includes transient cerebral arteriopathy, Moyamoya disease, and diffuse/multifocal vasculitis. Only children whose stroke etiology could be conclusively diagnosed were included in these analyses. We constructed logistic regression models to identify characteristics associated with each arteriopathy subtype.

RESULTS

Among 127 children with definite arteriopathy, the arteriopathy subtype could not be classified in 18 (14%). Moyamoya disease (n = 34) occurred mostly in children younger than 8 years of age; focal cerebral arteriopathy-inflammatory type (n = 25), in children 8-15 years of age; and dissection (n = 26), at all ages. Vertigo at stroke presentation was common in dissection. Dissection affected the cervical arteries, while Moyamoya disease involved the supraclinoid internal carotid arteries. A banded appearance of the M1 segment of the middle cerebral artery was pathognomonic of focal cerebral arteriopathy-inflammatory type but was present in <25% of patients with focal cerebral arteriopathy-inflammatory type; a small lenticulostriate distribution infarct was a more common predictor of focal cerebral arteriopathy-inflammatory type, present in 76%. It remained difficult to distinguish focal cerebral arteriopathy-inflammatory type from intracranial dissection of the anterior circulation. We observed only secondary forms of diffuse/multifocal vasculitis, mostly due to meningitis.

CONCLUSIONS

Childhood arteriopathy subtypes have some typical features that aid diagnosis. Better imaging methods, including vessel wall imaging, are needed for improved classification of focal cerebral arteriopathy of childhood.

Concomitant carotid aplasia and basilar artery occlusion in a child with PHACES syndrome

We report a case of an 8-year-old girl with posterior fossa abnormalities, haemangioma, arterial lesions, cardiac abnormalities or coarctation of the aorta and eye abnormalities syndrome with right carotid aplasia and complete basilar occlusion. The patient initially presented at 2.5 weeks of age with a growing right facial haemangioma involving segments 1, 3 and 4. Initial MRI at 2.5 weeks of age revealed an extraconal right orbital haemangioma without posterior fossa abnormalities and MR angiography (MRA) 3 weeks later showed right internal carotid aplasia. A follow-up MRA and cerebral angiography at 8 years of age revealed a complete occlusion of the basilar artery that was not appreciated on previous imaging. Neurological function remains normal, meeting all age-appropriate milestones.

"Phacing" a New Cause of Carotid Artery Dissection

INTRODUCTION

Cervical arterial dissection (CAD) is a frequent and preventable cause of ischemic stroke in young patients. Several arguments suggest that genetic and developmental disorders could play an important role as part of a multifactorial predisposition of sporadic CAD.We present 2 cases of young patients with CAD in association with cutaneous lesions and nonatherosclerotic multivessel arteriopathy.

CASE REPORTS

Our first patient was a 17-year-old white girl with sudden onset of weakness in her right upper limb. A magnetic resonance angiogram showed a severe stenosis along the extracranial and intracranial segments of the left internal carotid artery and the left middle cerebral artery. A complete ultrasound study confirmed the stenoses with characteristics suggestive of dissection.Our second patient was a 7-year old white girl with a past history of left middle cerebral artery ischemic stroke. During the follow-up, an ultrasonographical examination discovered an asymptomatic dissection of the right internal carotid artery.Both patients reported a history of large unilateral hemangiomas; in the first case a coloboma of the left optic disc and an aortic aneurysm were also present. These findings were suggestive of PHACE-a neurocutaneous developmental syndrome associated with constitutional arteriopathy of the major cerebral vessels.

CONCLUSIONS

Noteworthy, among vascular abnormalities of PHACE, CADs have never been reported before. Our 2 cases suggest that CAD is an underecognized cerebrovascular manifestation of PHACE and it should be searched for in these patients. Ultrasound, being noninvasive and portable, is a useful tool for the assessment and follow-up of these patients.

Cerebellar disruptions and neurodevelopmental disabilities

The vulnerability of the cerebellum during prenatal life to disruptive events such as hemorrhage and infection leads to a wide variety of morphological abnormalities. This review discusses various prenatal cerebellar disruptions including cerebellar agenesis, unilateral cerebellar hypoplasia, cerebellar cleft, global cerebellar hypoplasia, and vanishing cerebellum in Chiari type II malformation. For each entity, we discuss the definition, potential pathomechanism, clinical findings including neurocognitive and behavioral problems, neuroimaging features, and management. Accurate recognition of cerebellar disruptions and their differentiation from malformations is important in terms of diagnosis, prognosis, and genetic counselling.

PHACE syndrome is associated with intracranial cavernous malformations

INTRODUCTION

PHACE syndrome is a neurocutaneous disorder involving large facial hemangiomas in association with posterior fossa abnormalities, cerebral arterial anomalies, cardiac defects, and eye abnormalities. A recent consensus statement has delineated criteria necessary for the diagnosis of PHACE syndrome. Extracutaneous manifestations of PHACE syndrome predominately affect the cerebrovascular system. To date, there are no reports of cerebral cavernous malformations (CCMs) in children with PHACE syndrome.

METHODS

We reviewed the charts of children admitted to the Children''s Hospital of Pittsburgh who met criteria for PHACE syndrome, and evaluated neuroimaging for cerebrovascular abnormalities, including the finding of CCMs.

RESULTS

Six children met criteria for PHACE syndrome at our institution over a 10-year period. All children were female. All children had cerebrovascular abnormalities sufficient to meet major criteria for diagnosis. Four children (66.7 %) were found incidentally to have CCMs; all lesions measured less than 5 mm at the time of diagnosis and were asymptomatic.

CONCLUSION

At present, CCMs are not listed among the diagnostic criteria for PHACE syndrome, and they have not previously been reported in association with PHACE syndrome. Hypoxic injury in utero may be the common denominator in the pathogenesis of many of the abnormalities already accepted in the criteria for PHACE syndrome and the formation of CCMs. In the setting of PHACE syndrome, we encourage clinicians to evaluate children for CCMs, which are readily apparent on the already-recommended screening MRIs.