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Böttcher J, Alex M, Dänicke S, Gethmann J, Mertens-Scholz K, Janowetz B. Susceptibility, Immunity, and Persistent Infection Drive Endemic Cycles of Coxiellosis on Dairy Farms. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:1056. [PMID: 38612295 PMCID: PMC11011148 DOI: 10.3390/ani14071056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2024] [Revised: 03/27/2024] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Coxiella (C.) burnetii, a zoonotic bacterium, is prevalent in dairy farms. Some cows develop a persistent infection and shed C. burnetii into milk and occasionally by amniotic fluid at calving. Serological diagnosis of Q fever in humans is performed by phase (Ph)-specific antibody tests; PhII antibodies usually indicate an acute infection, while the development of a chronic infection is characterised by elevated PhI antibody titres. Phase-specific tests have now been established for diagnosis of coxiellosis in cattle. Additionally, an interferon-γ (IFN-γ) recall assay has been implemented to assess cellular immunity to C. burnetii in cattle. Milk samples from all lactating cows (n = 2718) of 49 Bavarian dairy farms were collected through a convenience sample and analysed for phase-specific antibodies. Antibody profiles were evaluated by age. Based on the seropositivity of first-lactation cows, three distinct herd profiles were observed: an 'acute' state of herd infection was characterised by a PhI-/PhII+ pattern. The detection of PhI antibodies (PhI+/PhII+) characterised the 'chronic' state, and seronegative results defined the 'silent' state of herd infection. If antibodies had not been detected in multiparous cows, the herd was considered as probably free of coxiellosis. The analysed cattle herds were noted to have an 'acute' (n = 12, 24.5%), 'chronic' (n = 18, 36.8%), or 'silent' state of herd infection (n = 16, 32.6%). Only three farms (6.1%) were classified as 'free' of C. burnetii. The detection of these herd states over a time period of 4 years in one farm indicated that the described states occur in a cyclical manner. Frequently, a wave-like profile was seen, i.e., a circumscribed seronegative age group was flanked by seropositive age groups. In seronegative animals, IFN-γ reactivity was demonstrated. Seroconversion after vaccination was observed by day 7 post-vaccination in chronically infected herds, whereas in the case of silent infection, it started by day 14. These data indicated a pre-existing immunity in seronegative animals in chronically infected herds. Additionally, IFN-γ reactivity was detected in seronegative calves (>3 months) and heifers from chronically infected farms compared to a negative farm. An infection prior to 3 months of age resulted in cellular immunity in the absence of detectable antibodies. An infection around calving would explain this. The aforementioned circumscribed seronegative age groups are, therefore, explained by an infection early in life during active shedding at calving. Based on these results, an endemic cycle of coxiellosis is proposed: Susceptible young heifers get infected by persistently infected cows. Subsequently, shedding of C. burnetii at calving results in infection and then in cellular immunity in offspring. When these calves enter the cow herd two years later, a maximum of herd immunity is achieved, shedding ceases, and new susceptible animals are raised. In an acutely infected dairy farm, the PhI+/PhII+ serological pattern prevailed in second-lactation cows. In this study, stored sera collected since birth were analysed retrospectively. From the earliest seroconversion, the peak of seroconversion took about 33 months. These data suggested a slow spread of infection within herds. The classification of dairy cow herds is a promising basis for further analysis of the clinical impact of coxiellosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens Böttcher
- Bavarian Animal Health Service, Senator-Gerauer-Straße 23, D-85586 Poing, Germany; (M.A.); (B.J.)
| | - Michaela Alex
- Bavarian Animal Health Service, Senator-Gerauer-Straße 23, D-85586 Poing, Germany; (M.A.); (B.J.)
| | - Sven Dänicke
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Bundesallee 37, D-38116 Braunschweig, Germany;
| | - Jörn Gethmann
- Institute of Epidemiology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, D-17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany;
| | - Katja Mertens-Scholz
- Institute for Bacterial Infections and Zoonoses, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Naumburger Straße 96a, D-07743 Jena, Germany;
- Institute for Infectious Diseases and Infection Control and Center for Sepsis Care and Control (CSCC), Jena University Hospital, Am Klinikum 1, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Britta Janowetz
- Bavarian Animal Health Service, Senator-Gerauer-Straße 23, D-85586 Poing, Germany; (M.A.); (B.J.)
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Dolcé P, de Beaumont-Dupont A, Jutras P, Mailhot-Léonard F, Alexandra Rosca M, Aubé-Maurice J. The lower Saint Lawrence River region of Quebec, a hot spot for sheepfold-associated Q fever in Canada: Review of 258 cases. JOURNAL OF THE ASSOCIATION OF MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY AND INFECTIOUS DISEASE CANADA = JOURNAL OFFICIEL DE L'ASSOCIATION POUR LA MICROBIOLOGIE MEDICALE ET L'INFECTIOLOGIE CANADA 2023; 8:201-213. [PMID: 38058500 PMCID: PMC10697106 DOI: 10.3138/jammi-2023-0001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/08/2023]
Abstract
Background The lower Saint Lawrence river region (LSLRR), in Quebec, has a 10-fold higher incidence of Q fever compared to the provincial rate. This study aimed to review clinical cases and the Q fever risk exposure in this region. Methods Data were retrieved from microbiology laboratory, medical records from Rimouski Regional Hospital and Public Health reports between 1991 and 2018. They were analyzed with Epi Info 7.2.2.6. Patients with confirmed acute, probable acute, and chronic Q fever were classified using standard case definitions and mapped according to the postal code, to assess the correlation between cases and sheep distribution. Results Out of 295 cases, 258 were included (241 confirmed acute, seven probable acute, 10 chronic). Median age was 49 years, 76% were male. For acute cases, the prominent symptoms were fever (99%), headache (83%), chills (80%), sweating (72%), myalgia (69%), and fatigue (67%). Clinical presentation was mostly febrile syndrome with mild hepatitis (84%). A seasonal peak was observed from May to July (56% of acute cases). Most cases (56%) occurred within the two counties where sheep production was highest. Exposure to sheep was prominent 93%, including 64% direct contact (15% shepherds, 49% sheepfold visitors), 14% indirect contact, and 15% sheepfold neighbors. Conclusions To our knowledge, this is one of the largest retrospective studies of Q fever cases reported in Canada. Q fever in Quebec LSLRR is associated mainly with sheep exposure. Fever and hepatitis were the most common manifestations. Preventive measures should be considered in this region to protect sheepfold workers, visitors, and their neighbors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Dolcé
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Centre hospitalier régional de Rimouski, Rimouski, Quebec, Canada
| | - Annie de Beaumont-Dupont
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Centre hospitalier régional de Rimouski, Rimouski, Quebec, Canada
- Department of Biology, Université du Québec à Rimouski, Rimouski, Quebec, Canada
| | - Philippe Jutras
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Centre hospitalier régional de Rimouski, Rimouski, Quebec, Canada
| | - Florence Mailhot-Léonard
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Centre hospitalier régional de Rimouski, Rimouski, Quebec, Canada
| | - Maria Alexandra Rosca
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Centre hospitalier régional de Rimouski, Rimouski, Quebec, Canada
- Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Joanne Aubé-Maurice
- Department of Public Health, CISSS du Bas-St-Laurent, Kamouraska, Quebec, Canada
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Bauer BU, Knittler MR, Andrack J, Berens C, Campe A, Christiansen B, Fasemore AM, Fischer SF, Ganter M, Körner S, Makert GR, Matthiesen S, Mertens-Scholz K, Rinkel S, Runge M, Schulze-Luehrmann J, Ulbert S, Winter F, Frangoulidis D, Lührmann A. Interdisciplinary studies on Coxiella burnetii: From molecular to cellular, to host, to one health research. Int J Med Microbiol 2023; 313:151590. [PMID: 38056089 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2023.151590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Revised: 10/19/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The Q-GAPS (Q fever GermAn interdisciplinary Program for reSearch) consortium was launched in 2017 as a German consortium of more than 20 scientists with exceptional expertise, competence, and substantial knowledge in the field of the Q fever pathogen Coxiella (C.) burnetii. C. burnetii exemplifies as a zoonotic pathogen the challenges of zoonotic disease control and prophylaxis in human, animal, and environmental settings in a One Health approach. An interdisciplinary approach to studying the pathogen is essential to address unresolved questions about the epidemiology, immunology, pathogenesis, surveillance, and control of C. burnetii. In more than five years, Q-GAPS has provided new insights into pathogenicity and interaction with host defense mechanisms. The consortium has also investigated vaccine efficacy and application in animal reservoirs and identified expanded phenotypic and genotypic characteristics of C. burnetii and their epidemiological significance. In addition, conceptual principles for controlling, surveilling, and preventing zoonotic Q fever infections were developed and prepared for specific target groups. All findings have been continuously integrated into a Web-based, interactive, freely accessible knowledge and information platform (www.q-gaps.de), which also contains Q fever guidelines to support public health institutions in controlling and preventing Q fever. In this review, we will summarize our results and show an example of how an interdisciplinary consortium provides knowledge and better tools to control a zoonotic pathogen at the national level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin U Bauer
- Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Hannover, Germany
| | - Michael R Knittler
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Immunology, Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Jennifer Andrack
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Bacterial Infections and Zoonoses, Jena, Germany
| | - Christian Berens
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis, Jena, Germany
| | - Amely Campe
- Department of Biometry, Epidemiology and Information Processing, (IBEI), WHO Collaborating Centre for Research and Training for Health at the Human-Animal-Environment Interface, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Hannover, Germany
| | - Bahne Christiansen
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Immunology, Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Akinyemi M Fasemore
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Munich, Germany; University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany; ZB MED - Information Centre for Life Science, Cologne, Germany
| | - Silke F Fischer
- Landesgesundheitsamt Baden-Württemberg, Ministerium für Soziales, Gesundheit und Integration, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Martin Ganter
- Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Hannover, Germany
| | - Sophia Körner
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Bacterial Infections and Zoonoses, Jena, Germany; Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology IZI, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Gustavo R Makert
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology IZI, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Svea Matthiesen
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Immunology, Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Katja Mertens-Scholz
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Bacterial Infections and Zoonoses, Jena, Germany
| | - Sven Rinkel
- Institut für Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und Hygiene, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany
| | - Martin Runge
- Lower Saxony State Office for Consumer Protection and Food Safety (LAVES), Food and Veterinary Institute Braunschweig/Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Jan Schulze-Luehrmann
- Institut für Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und Hygiene, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany
| | - Sebastian Ulbert
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology IZI, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Fenja Winter
- Department of Biometry, Epidemiology and Information Processing, (IBEI), WHO Collaborating Centre for Research and Training for Health at the Human-Animal-Environment Interface, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Hannover, Germany
| | - Dimitrios Frangoulidis
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Munich, Germany; Bundeswehr Medical Service Headquarters VI-2, Medical Intelligence & Information, Munich, Germany
| | - Anja Lührmann
- Institut für Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und Hygiene, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany.
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Robi DT, Demissie W, Temteme S. Coxiellosis in Livestock: Epidemiology, Public Health Significance, and Prevalence of Coxiella burnetii Infection in Ethiopia. VETERINARY MEDICINE (AUCKLAND, N.Z.) 2023; 14:145-158. [PMID: 37614223 PMCID: PMC10443632 DOI: 10.2147/vmrr.s418346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023]
Abstract
Coxiellosis is a zoonotic disease that is prevalent globally and can pose significant challenges, especially in less developed countries like Ethiopia. Coxiella burnetii is responsible for causing an infection called Q fever in humans and coxiellosis in ruminants. Pneumonia and endocarditis are the only signs that characterize the acute and chronic forms of Q fever, respectively. Ruminants exhibit symptoms such as abortion during the later stages of pregnancy, impaired fertility, perinatal death, premature delivery, and reduced birth weight. C. burnetii infection typically spreads among healthy cattle via tick bites and exposure to infected cattle or their bodily secretions. The primary source of human infection is through the ingestion of contaminated milk and milk products, but transmission through aerosols and dust generated during livestock operations is also common. Cattle, sheep, camels and goats are the primary sources of human infection, and the bacterium can be found in various bodily fluids of infected animals. Several factors, including host characteristics, environmental conditions, and management practices, can potentially affect the occurrence of C. burnetii infection in livestock, such as cattle, camels, sheep, and goats. Coxiellosis is prevalent in Ethiopia's pastoral and mixed cattle management systems, as individuals frequently interact with cattle and are therefore more prone to exposure to the C. burnetii bacterium. Vaccination and biosecurity measures are effective techniques for managing C. burnetii infection. Therefore, it is crucial to implement appropriate mitigation strategies, raise awareness about the spread of C. burnetii infection, and conduct further studies on C. burnetii infection in high-risk groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dereje Tulu Robi
- Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, Tepi Agricultural Research Center, Tepi, Ethiopia
| | - Wondimagegn Demissie
- Jimma University College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine School of Veterinary Medicine, Jimma, Ethiopia
| | - Shiferaw Temteme
- Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, Tepi Agricultural Research Center, Tepi, Ethiopia
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Christodoulou M, Malli F, Tsaras K, Billinis C, Papagiannis D. A Narrative Review of Q Fever in Europe. Cureus 2023; 15:e38031. [PMID: 37228530 PMCID: PMC10207987 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.38031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/23/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii, the causative agent of Q fever, causes abortions in animals. Its effects on humans and the management of Q fever in certain conditions like pregnancy are undetermined. The World Health Organization has estimated that zoonotic diseases cause around one billion cases of infections and millions of deaths globally each year. It is worth noting that many emerging infectious diseases currently being reported worldwide are zoonoses. We reviewed studies reporting on Q fever prevalence and incidence in Europe. Articles from 1937 to 2023 with the following terms "Coxiella burnetii and Europe and Q fever, and seroprevalence studies" were identified in the PubMed database and reports by organizations such as the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC). We included randomized and observational studies, seroprevalence studies, case series, and case reports. According to the ECDC in 2019, 23 countries reported 1069 cases, the majority of which were classified as confirmed cases. The number of reports per 100,000 inhabitants in the EU/EEA was 0.2 for 2019, the same as the previous four years. The highest report rate (0.7 cases per 100,000 population) was observed in Spain, followed by Romania (0.6), Bulgaria (0.5), and Hungary. Considering the typically asymptomatic nature of Q fever infection, it is imperative to strengthen the existing systems to promote the rapid identification and reporting of Q fever outbreaks in animals, particularly in cases of abortion. It is also essential to consider the facilitation of early information exchange between veterinarians and public health counterparts to ensure the timely detection and prevention of potential zoonotic events, including Q fever.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Foteini Malli
- Department of Nursing, University of Thessaly, Larissa, GRC
| | | | - Charalambos Billinis
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Thessaly, Karditsa, GRC
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Böttcher J, Bauer BU, Ambros C, Alex M, Domes U, Roth S, Boll K, Korneli M, Bogner KH, Randt A, Janowetz B. Long-term control of Coxiellosis in sheep by annual primary vaccination of gimmers. Vaccine 2022; 40:5197-5206. [PMID: 35914960 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2022.07.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Revised: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Coxiella (C.) burnetii, a Gram-negative intracellular bacterium, causes Q fever in humans and Coxiellosis in animals. Ruminants are a primary source of human infection with C.burnetii. In 2013, vaccination was implemented in a sheep flock with 650 ewes associated with two outbreaks of Q fever in humans in 2008 and 2012. Only gimmers (yearlings) received two doses of a commercial C.burnetii phase I whole cell vaccine three weeks apart (primary vaccination) without any revaccination. Vaginal and nasal swabs collected shortly after lambing were tested by qPCR. Additionally, a group of non-vaccinated sentinels was serologically monitored for phase I (PhI), II (PhII) antibodies and for Interferon γ (IFN-γ) after stimulation of whole blood cells with PhII-antigen with and without an IL-10-neutralizing monoclonal antibody. In 2021, 679 sera collected in 2014-2021 were retested retrospectively with three commercial ELISA kits and one batch of an in-house PhI/PhII-ELISA. A low-level shedding of C.burnetii (<103 mean C.burnetii/swab) was observed until 2014. In 2021 C.burnetii was detected in two animals (<103.1C.burnetii/swab), but vaginal swabs collected at two subsequent lambing seasons remained negative. Seroconversion of sentinels was detected until 2017. However, the retrospective analysis of sentinels in 2021 revealed additional single seropositive animals from 2018 to 2021. IFN-γ reactivity was observed during the whole study period; it peaked in 2014 and in 2018 and decreased thereafter. The sporadic detection of C.burnetii and the immune responses of sentinels suggested that a subliminal infection persisted despite vaccination. Nevertheless, vaccination of gimmers prevented the development of a major outbreak, it controlled the infection and reduced the risk of human infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens Böttcher
- Animal Health Service, Bavaria, Senator-Gerauer-Str. 23, 85586 Poing, Germany.
| | - Benjamin U Bauer
- Animal Health Service, Bavaria, Senator-Gerauer-Str. 23, 85586 Poing, Germany; Current address: University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, Bischofsholer Damm 15, 30173 Hannover, Germany
| | - Christina Ambros
- Animal Health Service, Bavaria, Senator-Gerauer-Str. 23, 85586 Poing, Germany
| | - Michaela Alex
- Animal Health Service, Bavaria, Senator-Gerauer-Str. 23, 85586 Poing, Germany
| | - Ursula Domes
- Animal Health Service, Bavaria, Senator-Gerauer-Str. 23, 85586 Poing, Germany
| | - Sabine Roth
- Staatl. Veterinäramt, Landratsamt Main-Spessart, Würzburger Str. 9 a, D-97753 Karlstadt
| | - Kerstin Boll
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Eggenreuther Weg 43, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Martin Korneli
- Staatl. Veterinäramt, Landratsamt Main-Spessart, Würzburger Str. 9 a, D-97753 Karlstadt
| | - Karl-Heinz Bogner
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Eggenreuther Weg 43, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Andreas Randt
- Animal Health Service, Bavaria, Senator-Gerauer-Str. 23, 85586 Poing, Germany
| | - Britta Janowetz
- Animal Health Service, Bavaria, Senator-Gerauer-Str. 23, 85586 Poing, Germany
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Ehrlichia, Coxiella and Bartonella infections in rodents from Guizhou Province, Southwest China. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2022; 13:101974. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2022.101974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Revised: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Winter F, Campe A. Q fever expertise among human and veterinary health professionals in Germany - A stakeholder analysis of knowledge gaps. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0264629. [PMID: 35239742 PMCID: PMC8893703 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0264629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Q fever is a zoonosis caused by Coxiella burnetii. In Germany, the common sources of human infections include small ruminants that excrete the pathogen. Q fever in humans can be asymptomatic or nonspecific. However, severe disease progression is also possible, which can lead to death. Q fever in small ruminants is usually asymptomatic, although reproductive disorders may occur. To protect humans from Q fever, it is important that human and veterinary health professionals (practitioners/health authority employees) have comprehensive knowledge of the diagnosis, control and prevention of Q fever, and its zoonotic potential. To ensure and enhance this understanding, this stakeholder analysis assessed Q fever expertise in human and veterinary health professionals in Germany and investigated how these knowledge gaps can best be resolved. For this purpose, an online survey and two focus group discussions were conducted with 836 and 18 participants, respectively. Knowledge gaps are due to a lack of awareness of Q fever, especially among human health practitioners. Moreover, colleagues who have heard about Q fever still lack the necessary cross-species knowledge to successfully diagnose, control and prevent this zoonosis. Additionally, differences exist between stakeholders regarding their work context and the region in which they work. In this study, stakeholders in southwestern Germany had slightly better Q fever knowledge than their colleagues in northeastern Germany. In addition, information sources aimed at resolving knowledge gaps involve direct conversations between the stakeholders, as well as reading materials and seminars. Each of these information sources should focus on interdisciplinary resources to strengthen the cooperation between human and veterinary health professionals and to raise awareness of the strengths of each stakeholder group. These results have already been implemented by the Q-GAPS project, with goals of raising awareness of Q fever and filling knowledge gaps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fenja Winter
- Department of Biometry, Epidemiology and Information Processing, WHO Collaborating Centre for Research and Training for Health in the Human-Animal-Environment Interface, University for Veterinary Medicine Hanover, Hanover, Germany
| | - Amely Campe
- Department of Biometry, Epidemiology and Information Processing, WHO Collaborating Centre for Research and Training for Health in the Human-Animal-Environment Interface, University for Veterinary Medicine Hanover, Hanover, Germany
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Bauer BU, Knittler MR, Herms TL, Frangoulidis D, Matthiesen S, Tappe D, Runge M, Ganter M. Multispecies Q Fever Outbreak in a Mixed Dairy Goat and Cattle Farm Based on a New Bovine-Associated Genotype of Coxiella burnetii. Vet Sci 2021; 8:252. [PMID: 34822625 PMCID: PMC8626049 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci8110252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2021] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
A Q fever outbreak on a dairy goat and cattle farm was investigated with regard to the One Health concept. Serum samples and vaginal swabs from goats with different reproductive statuses were collected. Cows, cats, and a dog were investigated with the same sample matrix. The farmer's family was examined by serum samples. Ruminant sera were analyzed with two phase-specific enzyme-linked immunoassays (ELISAs). Dominant immunoglobulin G (IgG) phase II levels reflected current infections in goats. The cows had high IgG phase I and II levels indicating ongoing infections. Feline, canine, and human sera tested positive by indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT). Animal vaginal swabs were analyzed by qPCR to detect C. burnetii, and almost all tested positive. A new cattle-associated C. burnetii genotype C16 was identified by the Multiple-Locus Variable-number tandem repeat Analysis (MLVA/VNTR) from ruminant samples. Additionally, a possible influence of 17ß-estradiol on C. burnetii antibody response was evaluated in goat sera. Goats in early/mid-pregnancy had significantly lower levels of phase-specific IgGs and 17ß-estradiol than goats in late pregnancy. We conclude that the cattle herd may have transmitted C. burnetii to the pregnant goat herd, resulting in a Q fever outbreak with one acute human case. The influence of placentation and maternal pregnancy hormones during pregnancy on the immune response is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin U. Bauer
- Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Bischofsholer Damm 15, 30173 Hannover, Germany;
| | - Michael R. Knittler
- Institute of Immunology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Suedufer 10, 17493 Greifswald, Isle of Riems, Germany; (M.R.K.); (S.M.)
| | - T. Louise Herms
- Lower Saxony State Office for Consumer Protection and Food Safety (LAVES), Food and Veterinary Institute Braunschweig/Hannover, Eintrachtweg 17, 30173 Hannover, Germany; (T.L.H.); (M.R.)
| | - Dimitrios Frangoulidis
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Neuherbergstraße 11, 80937 Munich, Germany;
- Bundeswehr Medical Service Headquarters VI-2, Medical Intelligence & Information (MI2), Dachauer Straße 128, 80637 Munich, Germany
| | - Svea Matthiesen
- Institute of Immunology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Suedufer 10, 17493 Greifswald, Isle of Riems, Germany; (M.R.K.); (S.M.)
| | - Dennis Tappe
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Bernhard-Nocht-Straße 74, 20359 Hamburg, Germany;
| | - Martin Runge
- Lower Saxony State Office for Consumer Protection and Food Safety (LAVES), Food and Veterinary Institute Braunschweig/Hannover, Eintrachtweg 17, 30173 Hannover, Germany; (T.L.H.); (M.R.)
| | - Martin Ganter
- Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Bischofsholer Damm 15, 30173 Hannover, Germany;
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Rabaza A, Giannitti F, Fraga M, Macías-Rioseco M, Corbellini LG, Riet-Correa F, Hirigoyen D, Turner KME, Eisler MC. Serological Evidence of Human Infection with Coxiella burnetii after Occupational Exposure to Aborting Cattle. Vet Sci 2021; 8:196. [PMID: 34564590 PMCID: PMC8473284 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci8090196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Revised: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Cattle are broadly deemed a source of Coxiella burnetii; however, evidence reinforcing their role in human infection is scarce. Most published human Q fever outbreaks relate to exposure to small ruminants, notably goats. Anti-phase II C. burnetii IgG and IgM were measured by indirect fluorescent antibody tests in 27 farm and veterinary diagnostic laboratory workers to ascertain whether occupational exposure to cattle aborting due to C. burnetii was the probable source of exposure. Four serological profiles were identified on the basis of anti-phase II IgG and IgM titres. Profile 1, characterised by high IgM levels and concurrent, lower IgG titres (3/27; 11.1%); Profile 2, with both isotypes with IgG titres higher than IgM (2/27; 7.4%); Profile 3 with only IgG phase II (5/27; 18.5%); and Profile 4, in which neither IgM nor IgG were detected (17/27; 63.0%). Profiles 1 and 2 are suggestive of recent C. burnetii exposure, most likely 2.5-4.5 months before testing and, hence, during the window of exposure to the bovine abortions. Profile 3 suggested C. burnetii exposure that most likely predated the window of exposure to aborting cattle, while Profile 4 represented seronegative individuals and, hence, likely uninfected. This study formally linked human Q fever to exposure to C. burnetii infected cattle as a specific occupational hazard for farm and laboratory workers handling bovine aborted material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Rabaza
- Instituto Nacional de Investigación Agropecuaria, Plataforma de Investigación en Salud Animal, Estación Experimental La Estanzuela, Colonia 70000, Uruguay; (A.R.); (F.G.); (M.F.); (M.M.-R.); (L.G.C.); (F.R.-C.); (D.H.)
- Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Langford House, Langford, Bristol BS40 5DU, UK;
| | - Federico Giannitti
- Instituto Nacional de Investigación Agropecuaria, Plataforma de Investigación en Salud Animal, Estación Experimental La Estanzuela, Colonia 70000, Uruguay; (A.R.); (F.G.); (M.F.); (M.M.-R.); (L.G.C.); (F.R.-C.); (D.H.)
| | - Martín Fraga
- Instituto Nacional de Investigación Agropecuaria, Plataforma de Investigación en Salud Animal, Estación Experimental La Estanzuela, Colonia 70000, Uruguay; (A.R.); (F.G.); (M.F.); (M.M.-R.); (L.G.C.); (F.R.-C.); (D.H.)
| | - Melissa Macías-Rioseco
- Instituto Nacional de Investigación Agropecuaria, Plataforma de Investigación en Salud Animal, Estación Experimental La Estanzuela, Colonia 70000, Uruguay; (A.R.); (F.G.); (M.F.); (M.M.-R.); (L.G.C.); (F.R.-C.); (D.H.)
- California Animal Health & Food Safety Laboratory System, University of California-Davis, Tulare, CA 95616, USA
| | - Luis G. Corbellini
- Instituto Nacional de Investigación Agropecuaria, Plataforma de Investigación en Salud Animal, Estación Experimental La Estanzuela, Colonia 70000, Uruguay; (A.R.); (F.G.); (M.F.); (M.M.-R.); (L.G.C.); (F.R.-C.); (D.H.)
| | - Franklin Riet-Correa
- Instituto Nacional de Investigación Agropecuaria, Plataforma de Investigación en Salud Animal, Estación Experimental La Estanzuela, Colonia 70000, Uruguay; (A.R.); (F.G.); (M.F.); (M.M.-R.); (L.G.C.); (F.R.-C.); (D.H.)
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Ciência Animal nos Trópicos, Faculdade de Veterinária, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Ondina, Salvador 40170-290, Brazil
| | - Darío Hirigoyen
- Instituto Nacional de Investigación Agropecuaria, Plataforma de Investigación en Salud Animal, Estación Experimental La Estanzuela, Colonia 70000, Uruguay; (A.R.); (F.G.); (M.F.); (M.M.-R.); (L.G.C.); (F.R.-C.); (D.H.)
| | - Katy M. E. Turner
- Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Langford House, Langford, Bristol BS40 5DU, UK;
| | - Mark C. Eisler
- Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Langford House, Langford, Bristol BS40 5DU, UK;
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11
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Proboste T, Deressa FB, Li Y, Kal DO, Gelalcha BD, Soares Magalhães RJ. Geographical Variation in Coxiella burnetii Seroprevalence in Dairy Farms Located in South-Western Ethiopia: Understanding the Broader Community Risk. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10060646. [PMID: 34071090 PMCID: PMC8224686 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10060646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Q fever is a zoonotic disease that is caused by Coxiella burnetii and leads to abortion and infertility in ruminants and debilitating disease in humans. Jimma zone, including Jimma town, located in the Oromia region of Ethiopia, was affected by an outbreak of abortions in ruminants related to Q fever infection between 2013 and 2015. This study aimed to investigate the geo-clustering of C. burnetii seroprevalence in dairy farms of Jimma town and identify the environmental risk factors associated with seroprevalence distribution. A total of 227 cattle were tested for antibodies against C. burnetii in 25 farms. We explored the clustering of C. burnetii seroprevalence using semivariograms. A geostatistical regression-based model was implemented to quantify the risk factors and to predict the geographical variation in C. burnetii seroprevalence at unsampled locations in Jimma town using OpenBugs. Our results demonstrated that the risk of exposure in dairy cattle varied across the landscape of Jimma town and was associated with environmental risk factors. The predictive map of C. burnetii seroprevalence showed that communities in the eastern part of Jimma town had the highest risk of exposure. Our results can inform community-level investigations of human seroprevalence in the high-risk areas to the east of Jimma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana Proboste
- UQ Spatial Epidemiology Laboratory, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD 4343, Australia; (Y.L.); (R.J.S.M.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Feyissa Begna Deressa
- School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Jimma University, Jimma P.O. Box 307, Ethiopia; (F.B.D.); (B.D.G.)
| | - Yanjin Li
- UQ Spatial Epidemiology Laboratory, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD 4343, Australia; (Y.L.); (R.J.S.M.)
| | - David Onafruo Kal
- College of Veterinary Science, Bahr El Ghazal University, Wau P.O. Box 10739, Sudan;
| | - Benti Deressa Gelalcha
- School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Jimma University, Jimma P.O. Box 307, Ethiopia; (F.B.D.); (B.D.G.)
| | - Ricardo J. Soares Magalhães
- UQ Spatial Epidemiology Laboratory, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD 4343, Australia; (Y.L.); (R.J.S.M.)
- Children’s Health and Environment Program, Child Health Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4101, Australia
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12
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Lemtudo AP, Mutai BK, Mwamburi L, Waitumbi JN. Seroprevalence of Coxiella burnetii in patients presenting with acute febrile illness at Marigat District Hospital, Baringo County, Kenya. Vet Med Sci 2021; 7:2093-2099. [PMID: 33955713 PMCID: PMC8464244 DOI: 10.1002/vms3.493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Revised: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Q fever is not routinely diagnosed in Kenyan hospitals. This study reports on Q fever in patients presenting at Marigat District Hospital, Kenya, with febrile illness. ELISA was used to detect Coxiella burnetii phase antigens. Of 406 patients, 45 (11.1%) were judged to have acute disease (phase II IgM or IgG > phase I IgG), 2 (0.5%) were chronic (phase I IgG titer >800 or phase I IgG > phase II IgG), while 26 (6.4%) had previous exposure (phase I IgG titer <800). Age (6–10 years, p = 0.002) and contact with goats (p = 0.014) were significant risk factors. Compared to immunofluorescence antibody test, the sensitivity and specificity for phase I IgG were 84% and 98%, respectfully, 46% and 100% for phase II IgG and 35% and 89% for phase II IgM. It is concluded that the low sensitivity of phase II ELISA underestimated the true burden of acute Q fever in the study population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allan P. Lemtudo
- United States Army Medical Research Directorate‐Africa/KenyaWalter Reed Army Institute of Research/Kenya Medical Research InstituteKisumuKenya
- Department of Biological SciencesSchool of ScienceUniversity of EldoretEldoretKenya
| | - Beth K. Mutai
- United States Army Medical Research Directorate‐Africa/KenyaWalter Reed Army Institute of Research/Kenya Medical Research InstituteKisumuKenya
| | - Lizzy Mwamburi
- Department of Biological SciencesSchool of ScienceUniversity of EldoretEldoretKenya
| | - John N. Waitumbi
- United States Army Medical Research Directorate‐Africa/KenyaWalter Reed Army Institute of Research/Kenya Medical Research InstituteKisumuKenya
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13
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Winter F, Schoneberg C, Wolf A, Bauer BU, Prüfer TL, Fischer SF, Gerdes U, Runge M, Ganter M, Campe A. Concept of an Active Surveillance System for Q Fever in German Small Ruminants-Conflicts Between Best Practices and Feasibility. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:623786. [PMID: 33644150 PMCID: PMC7902497 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.623786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Q fever is a zoonotic disease caused by the bacterium Coxiella burnetii. Inhalation of contaminated dust particles or aerosols originating from animals (esp. small ruminants) is the main source of human infection. Hence, an active early warning system for Q fever in German small ruminant livestock was conceptualized to prevent human infections. First, we describe the best practice for establishing this system before evaluating its feasibility, as the combination of both evokes conflicts. Vaginal swabs from all husbandry systems with a focus on reproductive females should pooled and investigated by PCR to detect C. burnetii-shedding animals. Multistage risk-based sampling shall be carried out at the flock level and within-flock level. At the flock level, all flocks that are at risk to transmit the pathogen to the public must be sampled. At the within-flock level, all primi- and multiparous females after lambing must be tested in order to increase the probability of identifying a positive herd. Sampling should be performed during the main lambing period and before migration in residential areas. Furthermore, individual animals should be tested before migration or exhibition to ensure a negative status. If a flock tests positive in at least one individual sample, then flock-specific preventive measures should be implemented. This approach implies huge financial costs (sample testing, action/control measures). Hence, taking the step to develop more feasible and affordable preventive measures, e.g., vaccinating small ruminant flocks, should replace testing wherever justifiable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fenja Winter
- Department of Biometry, Epidemiology and Information Processing, WHO Collaborating Centre for Research and Training for Health at the Human-Animal-Environment Interface, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Foundation, Hanover, Germany
| | - Clara Schoneberg
- Department of Biometry, Epidemiology and Information Processing, WHO Collaborating Centre for Research and Training for Health at the Human-Animal-Environment Interface, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Foundation, Hanover, Germany
| | - Annika Wolf
- Clinic for Swine, Small Ruminants and Forensic Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Foundation, Hanover, Germany
| | - Benjamin U. Bauer
- Clinic for Swine, Small Ruminants and Forensic Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Foundation, Hanover, Germany
| | - T. Louise Prüfer
- Lower Saxony State Office for Consumer Protection and Food Safety – Food and Veterinary Institute Braunschweig/Hannover, Hanover, Germany
| | - Silke F. Fischer
- National Consulting Laboratory for Coxiella burnetii, State Health Office Baden-Württemberg, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Ursula Gerdes
- Animal Disease Fund of Lower Saxony, Public Law Institution, Hanover, Germany
| | - Martin Runge
- Lower Saxony State Office for Consumer Protection and Food Safety – Food and Veterinary Institute Braunschweig/Hannover, Hanover, Germany
| | - Martin Ganter
- Clinic for Swine, Small Ruminants and Forensic Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Foundation, Hanover, Germany
| | - Amely Campe
- Department of Biometry, Epidemiology and Information Processing, WHO Collaborating Centre for Research and Training for Health at the Human-Animal-Environment Interface, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Foundation, Hanover, Germany
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14
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Devaux CA, Osman IO, Million M, Raoult D. Coxiella burnetii in Dromedary Camels ( Camelus dromedarius): A Possible Threat for Humans and Livestock in North Africa and the Near and Middle East? Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:558481. [PMID: 33251255 PMCID: PMC7674558 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.558481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The "One Health" concept recognizes that human health is connected to animal health and to the ecosystems. Coxiella burnetii-induced human Q fever is one of the most widespread neglected zoonosis. The main animal reservoirs responsible for C. burnetii transmission to humans are domesticated ruminants, primarily goats, sheep, and cattle. Although studies are still too sparse to draw definitive conclusions, the most recent C. burnetii serosurvey studies conducted in herds and farms in Africa, North Africa, Arabian Peninsula, and Asia highlighted that seroprevalence was strikingly higher in dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) than in other ruminants. The C. burnetii seroprevalence in camel herds can reach more than 60% in Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Sudan, and 70 to 80% in Algeria and Chad, respectively. The highest seroprevalence was in female camels with a previous history of abortion. Moreover, C. burnetii infection was reported in ticks of the Hyalomma dromedarii and Hyalomma impeltatum species collected on camels. Even if dromedary camels represent <3% of the domesticated ruminants in the countries of the Mediterranean basin Southern coast, these animals play a major socioeconomic role for millions of people who live in the arid zones of Africa, Middle East, and Asia. In Chad and Somalia, camels account for about 7 and 21% of domesticated ruminants, respectively. To meet the growing consumers demand of camel meat and milk (>5 million tons/year of both raw and pasteurized milk according to the Food and Agriculture Organization) sustained by a rapid increase of population (growth rate: 2.26-3.76 per year in North Africa), dromedary camel breeding tends to increase from the Maghreb to the Arabic countries. Because of possible long-term persistence of C. burnetii in camel hump adipocytes, this pathogen could represent a threat for herds and breeding farms and ultimately for public health. Because this review highlights a hyperendemia of C. burnetii in dromedary camels, a proper screening of herds and breeding farms for C. burnetii is urgently needed in countries where camel breeding is on the rise. Moreover, the risk of C. burnetii transmission from camel to human should be further evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian A. Devaux
- Aix-Marseille Univ, IRD, APHM, MEPHI, IHU-Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France
- CNRS, Marseille, France
| | - Ikram Omar Osman
- Aix-Marseille Univ, IRD, APHM, MEPHI, IHU-Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France
- Faculty of Sciences Ben-Ben-M'Sik, University Hassan II, Casablanca, Morocco
| | - Matthieu Million
- Aix-Marseille Univ, IRD, APHM, MEPHI, IHU-Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France
| | - Didier Raoult
- Aix-Marseille Univ, IRD, APHM, MEPHI, IHU-Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France
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15
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Khademi P, Ownagh A, Ataei B, Kazemnia A, Enferadi A, Khalili M, Mardani K. Prevalence of C. burnetii DNA in sheep and goats milk in the northwest of Iran. Int J Food Microbiol 2020; 331:108716. [PMID: 32521375 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2020.108716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2019] [Revised: 06/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Q fever is a common zoonotic disease with worldwide distribution. The causative agent of Q fever is Coxiella burnetii, a gram-negative and polymorphic rod bacterium. Sheep and goats are the primary reservoirs of this disease, although a variety of animal species can be infected. The main route of Q fever transmission from animals to humans is the inhalation of contaminated aerosols with C. burnetii. The bacterium is excreted in milk of infected animals and therefore; the consumption of unpasteurized milk and dairy products might be a route of coxiella burnetii transmission from animals to humans. The present study was conducted to determine the prevalence of C. burnetii in milk samples collected from sheep and goats in west Azerbaijan province, Iran. During 2018, a total number of 420 milk samples were collected from sheep (n = 210) and goats (n = 210) of different regions of the province. All milk samples were subjected to DNA extraction and examined by a highly and specific nested-PCR method. The results showed that 51 (12.1%) (95% CI: 9.3%-15.6%) examined samples [sheep; n = 16 (7.6%) and goat; n = 35 (16.6%)] were positive for C. burnetii. The prevalence of C. burnetii in goat milk samples was significantly higher than sheep milk samples (P < 0.05). The shedding of C. burnetii in milk was significantly higher in summer (25%) (P < 0.05, 95% CI: 17.7%-34%) than the other seasons. It was concluded that sheep and goat populations in west Azerbaijan play an important role in the epidemiology of Q fever.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Khademi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Urmia University, Urmia, West Azerbaijan, Iran
| | - A Ownagh
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Urmia University, Urmia, West Azerbaijan, Iran.
| | - B Ataei
- Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - A Kazemnia
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Urmia University, Urmia, West Azerbaijan, Iran
| | - A Enferadi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Urmia University, Urmia, West Azerbaijan, Iran
| | - M Khalili
- Department of Pathobiology, Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, Kerman, Iran
| | - K Mardani
- Department of Food Hygiene and Quality Control, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Urmia University, Urmia, West Azerbaijan, Iran
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16
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Prevalence of Coxiella burnetii in German sheep flocks and evaluation of a novel approach to detect an infection via preputial swabs at herd-level. Epidemiol Infect 2020; 148:e75. [PMID: 32172709 PMCID: PMC7118722 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268820000679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
A prevalence study was conducted on German sheep flocks including goats if they cohabitated with sheep. In addition, a novel approach was applied to identify an infection at the herd-level before lambing season with preputial swabs, suspecting venereal transmission and ensuing colonisation of preputial mucosa with Coxiella (C.) burnetii. Blood samples and genital swabs were collected from breeding males and females after the mating season and were analysed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) respectively. In total, 3367 animals were sampled across 71 flocks. The true herd-level prevalence adjusted for misclassification probabilities of the applied diagnostic tests using the Rogan-Gladen estimator for the prevalence estimate and a formula by Lang and Reiczigel (2014) for the confidence limits, ranged between 31.3% and 33% (95% confidence interval [95% CI] 17.3–45.5) detected by the ELISA and/or qPCR. Overall 26–36.6% (95% CI 13–56.8) were detected by ELISA, 13.9% (95% CI 4.5–23.2) by the qPCR and 7.9–11.2% (95% CI 0.08–22.3) by both tests simultaneously. The range of results is due to data obtained from literature with different specifications for test quality for ELISA. Among eight farms with females shedding C. burnetii, three farms (37.5%) could also be identified by preputial swabs from breeding sires. This indicates less reliability of preputial swabs if used as a single diagnostic tool to detect C. burnetii infection at the herd-level.
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17
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Groten T, Kuenzer K, Moog U, Hermann B, Maier K, Boden K. Who is at risk of occupational Q fever: new insights from a multi-profession cross-sectional study. BMJ Open 2020; 10:e030088. [PMID: 32041851 PMCID: PMC7045227 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2019-030088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Q fever is a zoonosis caused by the bacterium Coxiella burnetii. It is recognised as an occupational hazard for individuals who are in regular contact with animal birth products. Data from the literature are not comparable because different serological assays perform very differently in detecting past infections. It is therefore essential to choose the right assay for obtaining reliable data of seroprevalence. Obstetricians are another profession potentially at risk of Q fever. They can be infected from birth products of women with Q fever during pregnancy. There is little data, however, for Q fever in this occupational group. Our study therefore had two purposes. The first was to obtain reliable seroprevalence data for occupational groups in regular contact with animal birth products by using an assay with proven excellent sensitivity and specificity for detecting past infections. The second purpose was to obtain primary data for obstetricians. DESIGN We carried out a cross-sectional study. SETTING The study included shepherds, cattle farmers, veterinarians and obstetricians from Thuringia. PARTICIPANTS 77 shepherds, 74 veterinarians, 14 cattle farmers, 17 office employees and 68 obstetricians participated. The control group consisted of 92 blood donors. PRIMARY OUTCOME MEASURE The primary outcome measure was C. burnetii phase II specific IgG. The assay used was evaluated for this purpose in a previous study. RESULTS Of the 250 blood samples we analysed, the very highest seroprevalences (64%-77%) occurred in individuals with frequent animal contact. There were no significant differences between shepherds, cattle farmers and veterinarians. The seroprevalence in people working in administration was lower but still significantly greater than the control. No obstetricians or midwives tested positive. CONCLUSIONS Shepherds, cattle farmers and veterinarians have a high risk of C. burnetii infection. However, our study clearly proves that there was no increased risk for people working in an obstetric department.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanja Groten
- Department of Obstetrics, Universitätsklinikum Jena (University Hospital Jena), Jena, Germany
| | - Karola Kuenzer
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Universitätsklinikum Jena (University Hospital Jena), Jena, Thüringen, Germany
| | - Udo Moog
- Thuringian Animal Health Service, Jena, Germany
| | | | - Katrin Maier
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Universitätsklinikum Jena (University Hospital Jena), Jena, Thüringen, Germany
| | - Katharina Boden
- Dianovis GmbH, Greiz, Germany
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Universitätsklinikum (University Hospital) Jena, Jena, Germany
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18
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Akogbéto MC, Dagnon F, Aïkpon R, Ossé R, Salako AS, Ahogni I, Akinro B, Sominahouin A, Sidick A, Tokponnon F, Padonou GG. Lessons learned, challenges and outlooks for decision-making after a decade of experience monitoring the impact of indoor residual spraying in Benin, West Africa. Malar J 2020; 19:45. [PMID: 31992318 PMCID: PMC6986099 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-020-3131-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2019] [Accepted: 01/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Since 2008, Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS) has been performed in Benin in 19 districts, including 4 in southern Benin, 9 in Atacora, and 8 in Atacora, Alibori and Donga in northern Benin. However, Benin still struggles with questions about IRS cost-benefit and epidemiological impact. Lessons learned and challenges from 10 years of IRS in Benin to be shared with the stakeholders involved in vector control implementation for decision-making. METHODS Entomological parameters have been assessed entomological parameters in IRS communes since 2008. In all IRS intervention communes, decreases in human biting rate (HBR) of Anopheles gambiae, blood feeding inhibition and entomological inoculation rate (EIR) as compared to control district have been measured. RESULTS EIR was reduced by 80-90%, which is encouraging, but should be observed with caution because: (i) the reduction may be insufficient to decrease epidemiological indicators given that the residual EIR in IRS districts is still higher than it is in some regions of stable malaria; (ii) the reduction in EIR is based on comparisons with control communes, but it is difficult to select control areas with the same environmental characteristics as intervention areas; (iii) despite the reduction, half of all mosquitoes that entered IRS-treated houses succeeded in taking human blood meals. Further, there are behaviours among Benin's population that limit IRS efficacy, including recent data showing that > 90% of people are not protected by IRS between 7 and 10 p.m. This is due to the fact that they remain outdoors and that most people are not protected from mosquito bites after 10 p.m. because they either sleep outdoors without IRS protection or indoors without an ITN. Moreover, people have large amounts of clothing hanging on walls where mosquitoes can rest instead of IRS-treated walls. Finally, other components are important to consider in implementing IRS among which: (i) Vector resistance management strategies are sometimes poorly understood; this is actually different from the need to replace one insecticide with another after the emergence of resistance; (ii) African countries should prepare to finance IRS themselves. CONCLUSION To curtail residual malaria transmission, additional interventions able to target vectors escaping IRS should be prioritized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin C Akogbéto
- Centre de Recherche entomologique de Cotonou (CREC), Cotonou, Benin.,Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, de l' Université d'Abomey-Calavi, Cotonou, Benin
| | - Fortuné Dagnon
- US President's Malaria Initiative, US Agency for International Development, Cotonou, Benin
| | - Rock Aïkpon
- Centre de Recherche entomologique de Cotonou (CREC), Cotonou, Benin.,Technologies, Ingénierie et Mathématiques, Université Nationale des Sciences, Abomey, Bénin
| | - Razaki Ossé
- Centre de Recherche entomologique de Cotonou (CREC), Cotonou, Benin.,Université Nationale d'Agriculture, de Porto-Novo, Bénin
| | - Albert S Salako
- Centre de Recherche entomologique de Cotonou (CREC), Cotonou, Benin. .,Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, de l' Université d'Abomey-Calavi, Cotonou, Benin.
| | - Idelphonse Ahogni
- Centre de Recherche entomologique de Cotonou (CREC), Cotonou, Benin.,Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, de l' Université d'Abomey-Calavi, Cotonou, Benin
| | - Bruno Akinro
- Centre de Recherche entomologique de Cotonou (CREC), Cotonou, Benin
| | - André Sominahouin
- Centre de Recherche entomologique de Cotonou (CREC), Cotonou, Benin.,Faculté des Sciences Humaines et Sociales, de l' Université d'Abomey-Calavi, Cotonou, Benin
| | - Aboubakar Sidick
- Centre de Recherche entomologique de Cotonou (CREC), Cotonou, Benin
| | | | - Germain G Padonou
- Centre de Recherche entomologique de Cotonou (CREC), Cotonou, Benin.,Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, de l' Université d'Abomey-Calavi, Cotonou, Benin
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Pérez-Arellano JL, Carranza Rodríguez C, Gutierrez C, Bolaños Rivero M. [Epidemiology of Q fever in Spain (2018)]. REVISTA ESPANOLA DE QUIMIOTERAPIA : PUBLICACION OFICIAL DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPANOLA DE QUIMIOTERAPIA 2018; 31:386-405. [PMID: 30027720 PMCID: PMC6194867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2018] [Revised: 07/07/2018] [Accepted: 07/09/2018] [Indexed: 10/29/2022]
Abstract
Q fever is an anthropozoonosis whose causative agent is Coxiella burnetii, which has an important impact from the human and animal health point of view. In this review, a brief historical reference of the infection by C. burnetii and Q fever has been made initially. In a second section the basic epidemiological aspects of this infection are described (reservoirs/ sources of infection, form of transmission and epidemiological forms). Subsequently, the data of the infection by C. burnetii in Spain will be are indicated, particularly the clinical series, the seroepidemiological studies in humans, the affectation of different types of mammals and the participation of the ticks in the biological cycle. In addition, basic data on C. burnetii infection/ disease in other regions of the world will be are also included. Finally, and taking into account the previous data will indicate the main epidemiological characteristics of Q fever at present.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L Pérez-Arellano
- Prof. J. L Pérez Arellano, Unidad de Enfermedades Infecciosas y Medicina Tropical. Hospital Universitario Insular de Gran Canaria. Avda Marítima del Sur 35080. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Spain.
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Khamesipour F, Dida GO, Anyona DN, Razavi SM, Rakhshandehroo E. Tick-borne zoonoses in the Order Rickettsiales and Legionellales in Iran: A systematic review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2018; 12:e0006722. [PMID: 30204754 PMCID: PMC6181433 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2017] [Revised: 10/11/2018] [Accepted: 07/27/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tick-borne zoonoses in the Order Rickettsiales and Legionellales cause infections that often manifest as undifferentiated fevers that are not easy to distinguish from other causes of acute febrile illnesses clinically. This is partly attributed to difficulty in laboratory confirmation since convalescent sera, specific diagnostic reagents, and the required expertise may not be readily available. As a result, a number of tick-borne zoonoses are underappreciated resulting in unnecessary morbidity, mortality and huge economic loses. In Iran, a significant proportion of human infectious diseases are tick-borne, with anecdotal evidence suggesting that tick-borne zoonoses are widespread but underreported in the country. Epidemiological review is therefore necessary to aid in the effective control and prevention of tick-borne zonooses in Iran. The aim of this review is to provide an in-depth and comprehensive overview of anaplasmosis, ehrlichiosis, spotted fever group rickettsioses and coxiellosis in Iran. METHODS Using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, all relevant publications on tick-borne zoonoses in the Order Rickettsiales and Legionellales in Iran were searched using a number of search terms. The search was confined to authentic resources from repositories of popular data bases among them PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar, Science Direct, SpringerLink and SCOPUS. The search items included peer reviewed journals, books and book chapters published between 1996 and 2017. RESULTS A total of 1 205 scientific publications and reports were sourced, of which 63 met the search criteria and were reviewed. Of the 63 articles reviewed, 36 (57.1%) reported on coxiellosis, 15 (23.8%) on anaplasmosis, 11 (17.5%) on ehrlichiosis and 1(1.6%) on spotted fever group rickettsiae in a large scale study involving four countries, among them Iran. The existence of tick-borne pathogens in the Order Rickettsiales and Legionellales was confirmed by molecular, serological and microscopic techniques conducted on samples obtained from sheep, cattle, goats, camels, poultry, animal products (milk and eggs), dogs, ticks and even human subjects in different parts of the country; pointing to a countrywide distribution. DISCUSSION Based on the review, coxiellosis, anaplasmosis, ehrlichiosis, and SFG rickettsiae can be categorized as emerging tick-borne zoonotic diseases in Iran given the presence of their causiative agents (C. burnetii, A. phagocytophilum, A. marginale, A. bovis, A. ovis, A. central, E. canis, E. ewingii, E. chaffeensis and R. conorii) collectively reported in a variety of domestic animals, animal products, arthropods and human beings drawn from 22 provinces in Iran. CONCLUSION Given the asymptomatic nature of some of these zoonoses, there is a high likelihood of silent transmission to humans in many parts of the country, which should be considered a public health concern. Presently, information on the transmission intensity of tick-borne zoonoses caused by pathogens in the Order Rickettsiales and Legionellales to humans and its public health impact in Iran is scanty.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faham Khamesipour
- Cellular and Molecular Research Centre, Sabzevar University of Medical Sciences, Sabzevar, Iran
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Gabriel O. Dida
- School of Public Health and Community Development, Maseno University, Maseno, Kenya
- Department of Community and Public Health, Technical University of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Douglas N. Anyona
- School of Environment and Earth Sciences, Maseno University, Maseno, Kenya
| | - S. Mostafa Razavi
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Ehsan Rakhshandehroo
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
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NECESSITY TO IMPROVE THE EMERGENCY DIAGNOSTICS OF TICK-BORNE INFECTIONS IN PEOPLE BITTEN BY IXODID TICKS ABROAD OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION. ACTA BIOMEDICA SCIENTIFICA 2018. [DOI: 10.29413/abs.2018-3.4.19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction. Annually, there are several patients attended the Center for Diagnosis and Prevention of Tick-borne Infections in Irkutsk after bites of ticks that happened outside the Pribaikalye region or abroad. In such cases, the attacking ticks do not belong to convenient species that are usual for Eastern Siberia. Consequently, the spectrum of pathogenic microorganisms transmitted by these ticks may significantly differ from those that are detected by usual laboratory tests. Thus, both physicians and laboratory personnel may have difficulties in proper detection and identification of pathogens as well as in diagnosing and treating of such patients.The purpose of the study was the analysis of potential risks of human infection with the pathogens that are common in foreign countries outside the Russian Federation.Material and methods. The article uses information from electronic databases created by the authors during 2007-2017.Results and discussion. During 11 years of observations, 52 tick bites were registered in 20 countries, with 48 of them in the Eastern Hemisphere (92.3 %), three (5.8 %) in the United States and one (1.9 %) in the Republic of Cuba. The results indicate a real danger of infection by tick-borne pathogens of people traveling as the tourists and with business purposes to the countries of Europe, Asia and America. Conclusion. It is necessary to improve the existing algorithm for diagnosis, prevention and treatment for people bitten by ixodid ticks outside the Russian Federation, taking into account the possibility of infection by inconvenient imported infections.
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Abstract
Estimates of the incubation period for Q fever vary substantially between different reviews and expert advice documents. We systematically reviewed and quality appraised the literature to provide an evidence-based estimate of the incubation period of the Q fever by the aerosolised infection route. Medline (OVIDSP) and EMBASE were searched with the search limited to human studies and English language. Eligible studies included persons with symptomatic, acute Q fever, and defined exposure to Coxiella burnetti. After review of 7115 titles and abstracts, 320 records were screened at full-text level. Of these, 23 studies contained potentially useful data and were quality assessed, with eight studies (with 403 individual cases where the derivation of incubation period was possible) being of sufficient quality and providing individual-level data to produce a pooled summary. We found a median incubation period of 18 days, with 95% of cases expected to occur between 7 and 32 days after exposure.
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Lehner S, Lohan K, Dieckhoff HJ, Gerdes U. [Effects of vaccination against Q-fever in Lower Saxony dairy cattle farms]. Tierarztl Prax Ausg G Grosstiere Nutztiere 2017; 45:141-149. [PMID: 28290594 DOI: 10.15653/tpg-160602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2016] [Accepted: 11/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Being a notifiable and zoonotic disease, Q-fever is coming under increasing focus of epizootic disease control. Current studies indicate that the disease is more widespread in Germany than the number of notifications suggest. Therefore, since 2013, under certain conditions a hardship allowance is granted by the Animal Diseases Fund of Lower Saxony for the vaccine costs of the basic immunization to support affected farms. Material und methods: All farmers, on whose farms clinical signs of Q-fever and the pathogen Coxiella burnetii had been detected prior to vaccination and who had taken advantage of the hardship allowance during the previous 2 years were surveyed to assess the effectiveness of the measure. The survey was conducted by telephone using a previously compiled questionnaire. The topics included the observed clinical signs in cattle before and after the vaccination and the evaluation of the vaccination. RESULTS Clinical manifestations indicating a Q-fever infection may differ widely and include aborts and fertility disorders and/or frequently occurring inflammations (pneumonia, mastitis, metritis) and/or unspecific symptoms presenting as higher susceptibility to disease, weakness, and fever attacks. Following vaccination, the vast majority of the farmers (84 %) observed a marked health improvement in their cattle and two thirds of the respondents intend to continue with the vaccination even without financial support from the Animal Diseases Fund. Adverse effects beyond general vaccination reactions, including transiently elevated body temperature, physical weakness and fluctuations in milk performance, were rarely observed. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE The clinical signs for Q-fever were diverse and often unspecific. According to the assessments by the farmers, clinical problems in most cases were considerably reduced following Q-fever vaccination. Vaccination appears to be a valuable tool in the control of this zoonosis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Ursula Gerdes
- Dr. Ursula Gerdes, Niedersächsische Tierseuchenkasse, Brühlstraße 9, 30159 Hannover, E-Mail:
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Eldin C, Mélenotte C, Mediannikov O, Ghigo E, Million M, Edouard S, Mege JL, Maurin M, Raoult D. From Q Fever to Coxiella burnetii Infection: a Paradigm Change. Clin Microbiol Rev 2017; 30:115-190. [PMID: 27856520 PMCID: PMC5217791 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00045-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 550] [Impact Index Per Article: 78.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii is the agent of Q fever, or "query fever," a zoonosis first described in Australia in 1937. Since this first description, knowledge about this pathogen and its associated infections has increased dramatically. We review here all the progress made over the last 20 years on this topic. C. burnetii is classically a strict intracellular, Gram-negative bacterium. However, a major step in the characterization of this pathogen was achieved by the establishment of its axenic culture. C. burnetii infects a wide range of animals, from arthropods to humans. The genetic determinants of virulence are now better known, thanks to the achievement of determining the genome sequences of several strains of this species and comparative genomic analyses. Q fever can be found worldwide, but the epidemiological features of this disease vary according to the geographic area considered, including situations where it is endemic or hyperendemic, and the occurrence of large epidemic outbreaks. In recent years, a major breakthrough in the understanding of the natural history of human infection with C. burnetii was the breaking of the old dichotomy between "acute" and "chronic" Q fever. The clinical presentation of C. burnetii infection depends on both the virulence of the infecting C. burnetii strain and specific risks factors in the infected patient. Moreover, no persistent infection can exist without a focus of infection. This paradigm change should allow better diagnosis and management of primary infection and long-term complications in patients with C. burnetii infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carole Eldin
- URMITE, UMR CNRS 7278, IRD 198, INSERM U1095, Faculté de Médecine, Marseille, France
| | - Cléa Mélenotte
- URMITE, UMR CNRS 7278, IRD 198, INSERM U1095, Faculté de Médecine, Marseille, France
| | - Oleg Mediannikov
- URMITE, UMR CNRS 7278, IRD 198, INSERM U1095, Faculté de Médecine, Marseille, France
| | - Eric Ghigo
- URMITE, UMR CNRS 7278, IRD 198, INSERM U1095, Faculté de Médecine, Marseille, France
| | - Matthieu Million
- URMITE, UMR CNRS 7278, IRD 198, INSERM U1095, Faculté de Médecine, Marseille, France
| | - Sophie Edouard
- URMITE, UMR CNRS 7278, IRD 198, INSERM U1095, Faculté de Médecine, Marseille, France
| | - Jean-Louis Mege
- URMITE, UMR CNRS 7278, IRD 198, INSERM U1095, Faculté de Médecine, Marseille, France
| | - Max Maurin
- Institut de Biologie et de Pathologie, CHU de Grenoble, Grenoble, France
| | - Didier Raoult
- URMITE, UMR CNRS 7278, IRD 198, INSERM U1095, Faculté de Médecine, Marseille, France
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Meadows S, Jones-Bitton A, McEwen SA, Jansen J, Patel SN, Filejski C, Menzies P. Coxiella burnetii(Q Fever) Seropositivity and Associated Risk Factors in Sheep and Goat Farm Workers in Ontario, Canada. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2016; 16:643-9. [DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2015.1909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Shannon Meadows
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Scott A. McEwen
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jocelyn Jansen
- Veterinary Science and Policy, Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, Elora, Canada
| | - Samir N. Patel
- Public Health Ontario, Toronto, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | | | - Paula Menzies
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada
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Coxiella burnetii Infects Primary Bovine Macrophages and Limits Their Host Cell Response. Infect Immun 2016; 84:1722-1734. [PMID: 27021246 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01208-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2015] [Accepted: 03/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Although domestic ruminants have long been recognized as the main source of human Q fever, little is known about the lifestyle that the obligate intracellular Gram-negative bacterium Coxiella burnetii adopts in its animal host. Because macrophages are considered natural target cells of the pathogen, we established primary bovine monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM) as an in vitro infection model to study reservoir host-pathogen interactions at the cellular level. In addition, bovine alveolar macrophages were included to take cell type peculiarities at a host entry site into account. Cell cultures were inoculated with the virulent strain Nine Mile I (NMI; phase I) or the avirulent strain Nine Mile II (NMII; phase II). Macrophages from both sources internalized NMI and NMII. MDM were particularly permissive for NMI internalization, but NMI and NMII replicated with similar kinetics in these cells. MDM responded to inoculation with a general upregulation of Th1-related cytokines such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-12, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) early on (3 h postinfection). However, inflammatory responses rapidly declined when C. burnetii replication started. C. burnetii infection inhibited translation and release of IL-1β and vastly failed to stimulate increased expression of activation markers, such as CD40, CD80, CD86, and major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. Such capability of limiting proinflammatory responses may help Coxiella to protect itself from clearance by the host immune system. The findings provide the first detailed insight into C. burnetii-macrophage interactions in ruminants and may serve as a basis for assessing the virulence and the host adaptation of C. burnetii strains.
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Walter M, Brugger K, Rubel F. The ecological niche of Dermacentor marginatus in Germany. Parasitol Res 2016; 115:2165-74. [PMID: 26993325 PMCID: PMC4863919 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-016-4958-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2016] [Accepted: 02/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The ixodid tick Dermacentor marginatus (Sulzer, 1776) is endemic throughout southern Europe in the range of 33-51 (°) N latitude. In Germany, however, D. marginatus was exclusively reported in the Rhine valley and adjacent areas. Its northern distribution limit near Giessen is located at the coordinates 8.32 (°) E/50.65 (°) N. Particularly with regard to the causative agents of rickettsioses, tularemia, and Q fever, the observed locations as well as the potential distribution of the vector D. marginatus in Germany are of special interest. Applying a dataset of 118 georeferenced tick locations, the ecological niche for D. marginatus was calculated. It is described by six climate parameters based on temperature and relative humidity and another six environmental parameters including land cover classes and altitude. The final ecological niche is determined by the frequency distributions of these 12 parameters at the tick locations. Main parameters are the mean annual temperature (frequency distribution characterized by the minimum, median, and maximum of 6.1, 9.9, and 12.2 (°)C), the mean annual relative humidity (73.7, 76.7, and 80.9 %), as well as the altitude (87, 240, 1108 m). The climate and environmental niche is used to estimate the habitat suitability of D. marginatus in Germany by applying the BIOCLIM model. Finally, the potential spatial distribution of D. marginatus was calculated and mapped by determining an optimal threshold value of the suitability index, i.e., the maximum of sensitivity and specificity (Youden index). The model performance is expressed by AUC = 0.91.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Walter
- Institute for Veterinary Public Health, Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Katharina Brugger
- Institute for Veterinary Public Health, Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Franz Rubel
- Institute for Veterinary Public Health, Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria.
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Schulze LSC, Borchardt S, Ouellet V, Heuwieser W. Effect of a phase I Coxiella burnetii inactivated vaccine on body temperature and milk yield in dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 2015; 99:541-50. [PMID: 26547657 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2015-9628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2015] [Accepted: 09/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Q fever is a zoonotic disease caused by Coxiella burnetii. The pathogen is prevalent in ruminants (goats, sheep, cows), which are the main sources of human infection. In the cattle industry around the world, animal (15 to 20%) and herd (38 to 72%) level prevalences of C. burnetii are high. Vaccination of ruminants against Q fever is considered important to prevent spreading of the disease and risk of infection in humans. However, published information on side effects of the Q fever vaccination under field conditions is limited for cows. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of the phase I C. burnetii inactivated vaccine Coxevac on body temperature and milk yield in dairy cows. In 2 experiments, a total of 508 cows were randomly divided into 2 groups to determine the effect of first vaccination on body temperature and milk yield. The C. burnetii serostatus of all cows was tested before vaccination with an indirect ELISA. The first experiment took place in the teaching and research barn of the Clinic of Animal Reproduction at the Freie Universität Berlin. Temperature was measured vaginally in 10 cows in a crossover design. The second experiment was conducted on a commercial dairy farm. Milk yield of 498 cows was measured 1 wk before and 1 wk after vaccination. In a subset of 41 cows, temperature was measured rectally. In both experiments, body temperature increased significantly after vaccination (1.0 ± 0.9°C and 0.7 ± 0.8°C). A significant difference was also found in body temperature between vaccinated and control cows. Thirty percent of the vaccinated animals in experiment 1 showed reversible swelling at the injection site as a reaction to the vaccination. The results indicate that vaccination against Q fever causes a transient increase of body temperature that peaks in the first 12 to 24h and declines after that. In experiment 2, vaccinated cows (26.8 ± 0.39 kg/d) produced significantly less milk than did control cows (28.2 ± 0.44 kg/d) 7d after first vaccination. The cumulative milk loss after first vaccination was influenced by an interaction between C. burnetii serostatus and average milk yield 7d before first vaccination. This was considered as part of the physiological immune response. Three out of 10 vaccinated animals in experiment 1 showed painful swelling of the skin at the injection site, which had a maximum size of 14.0 × 14.0 × 1.1cm. In conclusion, a transient increase of body temperature and a decrease in milk yield is prevalent after Coxevac vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- L S-Ch Schulze
- Clinic for Animal Reproduction, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Koenigsweg 65, 14163 Berlin, Germany
| | - S Borchardt
- Clinic for Animal Reproduction, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Koenigsweg 65, 14163 Berlin, Germany
| | - V Ouellet
- Département de Sciences Animales, Université Laval, G1V 0A6 Québec, Canada
| | - W Heuwieser
- Clinic for Animal Reproduction, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Koenigsweg 65, 14163 Berlin, Germany.
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Eldin C, Mahamat A, Djossou F, Raoult D. Rainfall and sloth births in may, Q fever in July, Cayenne, French Guiana. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2015; 92:979-81. [PMID: 25802429 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.14-0751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2014] [Accepted: 01/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Q fever in French Guiana is correlated with the rainy season. We found a 1- to 2-month lagged correlation between Q fever incidence and the number of births of three-toed sloth. This result strengthens the hypothesis that the three-toed sloth is the wild reservoir of Q fever in French Guiana.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carole Eldin
- URMITE, UMR CNRS 7278, IRD 198, INSERM U1095 Faculté de Médecine 27 Boulevard Jean Moulin, 13385 Marseille Cedex 5, France; Unité de Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales, Centre Hospitalier Andrée Rosemon, 2, rue des Flamboyants, BP 6006-97306 Cayenne Cedex, French Guiana
| | - Aba Mahamat
- URMITE, UMR CNRS 7278, IRD 198, INSERM U1095 Faculté de Médecine 27 Boulevard Jean Moulin, 13385 Marseille Cedex 5, France; Unité de Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales, Centre Hospitalier Andrée Rosemon, 2, rue des Flamboyants, BP 6006-97306 Cayenne Cedex, French Guiana
| | - Felix Djossou
- URMITE, UMR CNRS 7278, IRD 198, INSERM U1095 Faculté de Médecine 27 Boulevard Jean Moulin, 13385 Marseille Cedex 5, France; Unité de Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales, Centre Hospitalier Andrée Rosemon, 2, rue des Flamboyants, BP 6006-97306 Cayenne Cedex, French Guiana
| | - Didier Raoult
- URMITE, UMR CNRS 7278, IRD 198, INSERM U1095 Faculté de Médecine 27 Boulevard Jean Moulin, 13385 Marseille Cedex 5, France; Unité de Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales, Centre Hospitalier Andrée Rosemon, 2, rue des Flamboyants, BP 6006-97306 Cayenne Cedex, French Guiana
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First isolation of Coxiella burnetii from clinical material by cell-free medium (ACCM2). Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2015; 34:1017-22. [DOI: 10.1007/s10096-015-2321-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2014] [Accepted: 01/08/2015] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Frangoulidis D, Walter MC, Antwerpen M, Zimmermann P, Janowetz B, Alex M, Böttcher J, Henning K, Hilbert A, Ganter M, Runge M, Münsterkötter M, Splettstoesser WD, Hanczaruk M. Molecular analysis of Coxiella burnetii in Germany reveals evolution of unique clonal clusters. Int J Med Microbiol 2014; 304:868-76. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2014.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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Ezatkhah M, Alimolaei M, Khalili M, Sharifi H. Seroepidemiological study of Q fever in small ruminants from Southeast Iran. J Infect Public Health 2014; 8:170-6. [PMID: 25270385 DOI: 10.1016/j.jiph.2014.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2014] [Revised: 07/23/2014] [Accepted: 08/24/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to determine the prevalence of Coxiella burnetii antibodies in small ruminants in Southeast Iran. A total of 368 small ruminant blood samples (241 caprine blood samples and 127 ovine blood samples) were collected from January to May of 2011 in Southeast Iran. A commercial ELISA test kit was employed to identify specific antibodies against C. burnetii in the sheep and goats. Seropositivity in the examined counties ranged from 17.1% to 39.2%. Of the animals tested, 97 animals (26.4%), including 43 sheep (33.9%) and 54 goats (22.4%), had antibodies to C. burnetii. The results of the current study reveal the high prevalence of antibody positivity in small ruminants in Southeast Iran. Thus, sheep and goats are important reservoirs in this area. Additionally, we performed a logistic regression to the identify risk factors for positivity and concluded that age was an important risk factor (P<0.001).
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Affiliation(s)
- Majid Ezatkhah
- Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute, Kerman Branch, Kerman, Iran
| | - Mojtaba Alimolaei
- Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute, Kerman Branch, Kerman, Iran; Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, Kerman, Iran.
| | - Mohammad Khalili
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, Kerman, Iran; Research Center of Tropical and Infectious Disease, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Hamid Sharifi
- Department of Food Hygiene and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, Iran; Research Center for Modeling in Health, Institute for Futures Studies in Health, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
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Bellini C, Magouras I, Chapuis-Taillard C, Clerc O, Masserey E, Peduto G, Péter O, Schaerrer S, Schuepbach G, Greub G. Q fever outbreak in the terraced vineyards of Lavaux, Switzerland. New Microbes New Infect 2014; 2:93-9. [PMID: 25356353 PMCID: PMC4184577 DOI: 10.1002/nmi2.37] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2013] [Revised: 01/06/2014] [Accepted: 01/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii infection (Q fever) is a widespread zoonosis with low endemicity in Switzerland, therefore no mandatory public report was required. A cluster of initially ten human cases of acute Q fever infections characterized by prolonged fever, asthenia and mild hepatitis occurred in 2012 in the terraced vineyard of Lavaux. Epidemiological investigations based on patients' interviews and veterinary investigations included environmental sampling as well as Coxiella-specific serological assay and molecular examinations (real-time PCR in vaginal secretions) of suspected sheep. These investigations demonstrated that 43% of sheep carried the bacteria whereas 30% exhibited anti-Coxiella antibodies. Mitigation measures, including limiting human contacts with the flock, hygiene measures, flock vaccination and a public official alert, have permitted the detection of four additional human cases and the avoidance of a much larger outbreak. Since November 2012, mandatory reporting of Q fever to Swiss public health authorities has been reintroduced. A close follow up of human cases will be necessary to identify chronic Q fever.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Bellini
- Service of Infectious Diseases, Riviera Regional Hospital Vevey, Switzerland
| | - I Magouras
- Veterinary Public Health Institute, Vetsuisse faculty, University of Bern Bern, Switzerland
| | - C Chapuis-Taillard
- Service of Infectious Diseases, Medical Centre of Vidy Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - O Clerc
- Service of Infectious Diseases, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - E Masserey
- Service of Public Health, Canton of Vaud Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - G Peduto
- Service of Consumption and Veterinary Affairs, Canton of Vaud Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - O Péter
- Service of Infectious Diseases, Central Institute of Valais Sion, Switzerland
| | - S Schaerrer
- Institute of Veterinary Bacteriology, Vetsuisse faculty, University of Zurich Zurich, Switzerland
| | - G Schuepbach
- Veterinary Public Health Institute, Vetsuisse faculty, University of Bern Bern, Switzerland
| | - G Greub
- Service of Infectious Diseases, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne Lausanne, Switzerland ; Institute of Microbiology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne Lausanne, Switzerland
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Bellini C, Magouras I, Chapuis-Taillard C, Clerc O, Masserey E, Peduto G, Péter O, Schaerrer S, Schuepbach G, Greub G. Q fever outbreak in the terraced vineyards of Lavaux, Switzerland. New Microbes New Infect 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/2052-2975.37] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- C. Bellini
- Service of Infectious Diseases; Riviera Regional Hospital; Vevey Switzerland
| | - I. Magouras
- Veterinary Public Health Institute; Vetsuisse faculty; University of Bern; Bern Switzerland
| | - C. Chapuis-Taillard
- Service of Infectious Diseases; Medical Centre of Vidy; Lausanne Switzerland
| | - O. Clerc
- Service of Infectious Diseases; Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne; Lausanne Switzerland
| | - E. Masserey
- Service of Public Health; Canton of Vaud; Lausanne Switzerland
| | - G. Peduto
- Service of Consumption and Veterinary Affairs; Canton of Vaud; Lausanne Switzerland
| | - O. Péter
- Service of Infectious Diseases; Central Institute of Valais; Sion Switzerland
| | - S. Schaerrer
- Institute of Veterinary Bacteriology; Vetsuisse faculty; University of Zurich; Zurich Switzerland
| | - G. Schuepbach
- Veterinary Public Health Institute; Vetsuisse faculty; University of Bern; Bern Switzerland
| | - G. Greub
- Service of Infectious Diseases; Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne; Lausanne Switzerland
- Institute of Microbiology; Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne; Lausanne Switzerland
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A windy day in a sheep saleyard: an outbreak of Q fever in rural South Australia. Epidemiol Infect 2014; 143:391-8. [DOI: 10.1017/s0950268814001083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
SUMMARYIn December 2004, the Department of Human Services investigated an outbreak of Q fever in South Australia. A case-control study tested an association between attending a local saleyard and human illness. A case was defined as a person with clinical illness and evidence of seroconversion or high phase II IgM. Controls were selected from a database of community controls matched on sex, age group and postcode. Matched analysis of the first 15 cases with 45 controls indicated that contracting Q fever was associated with attending the saleyard on one particular day (adjusted odds ratio 15·3, 95% confidence interval 1·7–undefined,P = 0·014). Saleyard conditions were windy and conducive for airborne dispersal of contaminated particles. In total, 25 cases were detected. Of these, 22 cases had attended a local saleyard on the same day. This outbreak suggests cases were probably infected by a single exposure at a saleyard from infected sheep and dust. The investigation resulted in an increase in the local uptake of Q fever vaccination and extension of the Australian national vaccination programme.
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Tobudic S, Nedomansky K, Poeppl W, Müller M, Faas A, Mooseder G, Allerberger F, Stanek G, Burgmann H. Seroprevalence for Coxiella burnetii, Francisella tularensis, Brucella abortus and Brucella melitensis in Austrian adults: a cross-sectional survey among military personnel and civilians. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2014; 5:315-7. [PMID: 24572607 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2013.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2013] [Revised: 12/15/2013] [Accepted: 12/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The prevalence of Coxiella burnetii, Francisella tularensis, Brucella abortus, and Brucella melitensis infections in Austria and the exposure risk of military personnel were assessed in an exploratory nationwide cross-sectional seroprevalence survey in 526 healthy adult individuals, 222 of which were soldiers and 304 were civilians. Screening for IgA/IgG antibodies to C. burnetii (Phase I) and IgG/IgM antibodies to C. burnetii (Phase II), and to F. tularensis was done with commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. To detect antibodies against B. abortus and B. melitensis, an in-house complement fixation test was used. Overall, 11 individuals (2.0%) showed antibodies to C. burnetii, 3 individuals (0.5%) were seropositive for F. tularensis, and one (0.3%) individual was borderline positive. All individuals positive or borderline for F. tularensis tested negative for antibodies against C. burnetii. All individuals tested negative for antibodies against B. melitensis/B. abortus. There were no significant differences between the seroprevalence of C. burnetii and F. tularensis among military personnel and civilians. Our data demonstrate serological evidence of a low rate of exposure to C. burnetii and F. tularensis among the Austrian adult population and military personnel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selma Tobudic
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Klara Nedomansky
- Fachhochschule Campus Wien, University of Applied Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Wolfgang Poeppl
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria; Department of Dermatology and Tropical Medicine, Military Hospital Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Maria Müller
- Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety, Vienna, Austria
| | - Angelus Faas
- Institute for Medical Support, Military Hospital Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Gerhard Mooseder
- Department of Dermatology and Tropical Medicine, Military Hospital Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Gerold Stanek
- Institute for Hygiene and Applied Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Heinz Burgmann
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
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Gürtler L, Bauerfeind U, Blümel J, Burger R, Drosten C, Gröner A, Heiden M, Hildebrandt M, Jansen B, Offergeld R, Pauli G, Seitz R, Schlenkrich U, Schottstedt V, Strobel J, Willkommen H. Coxiella burnetii - Pathogenic Agent of Q (Query) Fever. Transfus Med Hemother 2014; 41:60-72. [PMID: 24659949 PMCID: PMC3949614 DOI: 10.1159/000357107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2013] [Accepted: 05/09/2013] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Rainer Seitz
- Arbeitskreis Blut, Untergruppe «Bewertung Blutassoziierter Krankheitserreger»
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Chmielewski T, Tylewska-Wierzbanowska S. Q fever outbreaks in Poland during 2005-2011. Med Sci Monit 2013; 19:1073-9. [PMID: 24284912 PMCID: PMC3852849 DOI: 10.12659/msm.889947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2013] [Accepted: 10/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Q fever is a health problem affecting humans and animals worldwide. In Poland, previous studies have pointed to 2 sources of outbreaks of the disease: the importation of infected animals and their products, and natural domestic foci. In the last decade, 5 outbreaks have occurred in cattle farms in south Poland in Malopolskie, Podkarpackie, Opolskie, and Silesian provinces. The aim of this study was to characterize the Q fever foci in Poland. MATERIAL AND METHODS A total of 279 individuals were included. Levels of serum IgM and IgG antibodies to phase I and II C. burnetii antigens were assayed by indirect immunofluorescence method. Bacterial DNA from all specimens were detected with PCR with primer pairs specific to the htpAB-associated repetitive element, and amplicons were sequenced. RESULTS Infection was recognized in 67 individuals out of 279 tested in all foci. Twenty-five individuals presented clinical symptoms of acute Q fever. DNA of C. burnetii was found in 8 human blood samples obtained from 3 farm workers and 5 family members. CONCLUSIONS The described outbreaks demonstrate that the main source of human infections in Poland is infected cattle.
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Coxiella burnetii seroprevalence and risk factors in sheep farmers and farm residents in The Netherlands. Epidemiol Infect 2013; 142:1231-44. [PMID: 23920311 PMCID: PMC4045170 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268813001726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
SUMMARY In this study, Coxiella burnetii seroprevalence was assessed for dairy and non-dairy sheep farm residents in The Netherlands for 2009-2010. Risk factors for seropositivity were identified for non-dairy sheep farm residents. Participants completed farm-based and individual questionnaires. In addition, participants were tested for IgG and IgM C. burnetii antibodies using immunofluorescent assay. Risk factors were identified by univariate, multivariate logistic regression, and multivariate multilevel analyses. In dairy and non-dairy sheep farm residents, seroprevalence was 66·7% and 51·3%, respectively. Significant risk factors were cattle contact, high goat density near the farm, sheep supplied from two provinces, high frequency of refreshing stable bedding, farm started before 1990 and presence of the Blessumer breed. Most risk factors indicate current or past goat and cattle exposure, with limited factors involving sheep. Subtyping human, cattle, goat, and sheep C. burnetii strains might elucidate their role in the infection risk of sheep farm residents.
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Dorko E, Rimárová K, Pilipcinec E. Influence of the environment and occupational exposure on the occurrence of Q fever. Cent Eur J Public Health 2013; 20:208-14. [PMID: 23285522 DOI: 10.21101/cejph.a3754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Q fever, which is caused by Coxiella bumetii, is a worldwide zoonotic infectious disease and ruminants are the main reservoir for human infections. Humans become infected primarily by inhaling aerosols that are contaminated with C. bumetii. Ingestion (particularly drinking raw milk) and person-to-person transmission are minor routes. Animals shed the bacterium in urine and faeces, and in very high concentrations in birth by-products. The bacterium persists in the environment in a resistant spore-like form which may become airborne and transported long distances by the wind. Q fever is considered primarily an occupational disease of workers in close contact with farm animals or processing their products, however, it may occur also in persons without direct contact. To prevent the introduction and spread of Q fever infection, preventive measures should be implemented including immunisation with currently available vaccines of domestic animals and humans at risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik Dorko
- Department of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of P. J. Safárik, Kosice, Slovak Republic.
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41
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Hendrix LR, Chen C. Antigenic analysis for vaccines and diagnostics. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2013; 984:299-328. [PMID: 22711639 DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-4315-1_16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/20/2023]
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii infection is frequently unrecognized or misdiagnosed, as symptoms generally mimic an influenza-like illness. However, the disease (Q fever) may result in chronic infection, usually manifesting as potentially fatal endocarditis. The development of a chronic fatigue-like sequela may also occur. Infected ruminants are the major reservoir for infection in humans, primarily through exposure to birth products or aerosols that transmit the bacterium over wide regions. A vaccine against C. burnetii infection has been in use in Australia for abattoir and agricultural workers for many years. The possibility of adverse reactions in those with previous exposure to the agent has prevented its use elsewhere. Subunit vaccines, utilizing chemical extraction of components thought to cause adverse reactions, are in development, but none are yet licensed. Others have sought to combine immunogenic peptides with or without selected lipopolysaccharide components to produce a vaccine without the possibility of adverse reactions. Selected immunogenic proteins have been shown to induce both humoral and cellular immune responses. Although current diagnosis of infection relies on serological testing, the presentation of specific antibody occurs 7-15 days following the onset of symptoms, delaying treatment that may result in prolonged morbidity. PCR detection of DNA to specific C. burnetii antigens in the blood is possible early in infection, but PCR may become negative when PII IgG antibodies appear. PCR is useful for early diagnosis when Q fever is suspected, as in large epidemics, and shortens the delay in the identification of Q fever endocarditis. Others have combined PCR with ELISA or other methods to increase the ability to detect infection at any stage. The search for new diagnostic reagents and vaccines has utilized new methods for discovery of immunoreactive proteins. DNA analysis of the heterogeneity of C. burnetii isolates has led to a greater understanding of the diversity of isolates and a means to determine whether there is a correlation between strain and disease severity. 2-D SDS PAGE of immunogenic proteins reactive with human or animal infection sera and mass spectrometric analysis of specific secreted or outer membrane proteins have identified candidate antigens. Microarrays have allowed the analysis of peptide libraries of open reading frames to evaluate the immunogenicity of complete genomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura R Hendrix
- Department of Microbial and Molecular Pathogenesis, College of Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, 3107 Medical Research and Education Building, Bryan, TX 77807-3260, USA.
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Maternofetal consequences of Coxiella burnetii infection in pregnancy: a case series of two outbreaks. BMC Infect Dis 2012; 12:359. [PMID: 23249469 PMCID: PMC3541954 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2334-12-359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2012] [Accepted: 12/13/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background A high complication rate of Q fever in pregnancy is described on the basis of a limited number of cases. All pregnant women with proven Q fever regardless of clinical symptoms should therefore receive long-term cotrimoxazole therapy. But cotrimoxazole as a folic acid antagonist may cause harm to the fetus. We therefore investigated the Q fever outbreaks, Soest in 2003 and Jena in 2005, to determine the maternofetal consequences of Coxiella burnetii infection contracted during pregnancy. Methods Different outbreak investigation strategies were employed at the two sides. Antibody screening was performed with an indirect immunofluorescence test. Medical history and clinical data were obtained and serological follow up performed at delivery. Available placental tissue, amniotic fluid and colostrum/milk were further investigated by polymerase chain reaction and by culture. Results 11 pregnant women from Soest (screening rate: 49%) and 82 pregnant women from Jena (screening rate: 27%) participated in the outbreak investigation. 11 pregnant women with an acute C. burnetii infection were diagnosed. Three women had symptomatic disease. Three women, who were infected in the first trimester, were put on long-term therapy. The remaining women received cotrimoxazole to a lesser extent (n=3), were treated with macrolides for three weeks (n=1) or after delivery (n=1), were given no treatment at all (n=2) or received antibiotics ineffective for Q fever (n=1). One woman and her foetus died of an underlying disease not related to Q fever. One woman delivered prematurely (35th week) and one child was born with syndactyly. We found no obvious association between C. burnetii infection and negative pregnancy outcome. Conclusions Our data do not support the general recommendation of long-term cotrimoxazole treatment for Q fever infection in pregnancy. Pregnant women with symptomatic C. burnetii infections and with chronic Q fever should be treated. The risk-benefit ratio of treatment in these patients, however, remains uncertain. If cotrimoxazole is administered, folinic acid has to be added.
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Paul S, Agger JF, Markussen B, Christoffersen AB, Agerholm JS. Factors associated with Coxiella burnetii antibody positivity in Danish dairy cows. Prev Vet Med 2012; 107:57-64. [PMID: 22748360 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2012.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2012] [Revised: 05/25/2012] [Accepted: 05/28/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the study was to identify associations between the level of Coxiella burnetii (C. burnetii) antibodies in individual milk samples and cow and herd level factors in Danish dairy cows. The study, designed as a prospective cross sectional study with follow up, included 24 herds identified by a stratified random sampling procedure according to the level of C. burnetii antibodies in one bulk tank milk (BTM) sample at the beginning of the study. Ten herds were BTM positive, ten herds were BTM negative and four herds had an intermediate level. The samples were tested with an ELISA and results determined as S/P (sample to positive control) values. Three cross sectional studies of all lactating cows within each herd were then conducted during an 11 months follow up period with collection of a total of 5829 milk samples from 3116 cows. Each sample was tested with the same ELISA as used for BTM testing, and cows were considered test positive for S/P values ≥ 40, and otherwise negative. Individual cow information was extracted from the Danish Cattle Database and herd information was obtained from a telephone interview with each farmer. From multivariable logistic regression analysis accounting for hierarchical structures in the data it was concluded that odds for seropositivity increased with Danish Holstein breed, increasing number of parity and high milk protein contents, but decreased with increasing milk yield and high milk fat contents. Cows were at a higher risk during summer than other seasons. Among the herd level factors, herd size, tie stall housing system, quarantine of newly purchased animals and good hygienic precautions taken by the veterinarian before entering into the stable were also significantly associated with reduced odds of C. burnetii antibody positivity. The prevalence of test positive cows was almost constant during the study period in herds which were initially BTM positive and BTM intermediate, whilst the prevalence of positive cows in a few of the initial BTM negative herds changed from almost zero to higher than 60%. This indicates that herd infections last quite long and that test negative herds may convert to positive due to a few latently infected cows or due to transmissions from other herds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suman Paul
- Department of Large Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Groennegaardsvej 8, DK-1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark.
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Q fever and pneumonia in an area with a high livestock density: a large population-based study. PLoS One 2012; 7:e38843. [PMID: 22685612 PMCID: PMC3369851 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0038843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2012] [Accepted: 05/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Concerns about public health risks of intensive animal production in the Netherlands continue to rise, in particular related to outbreaks of infectious diseases. The aim was to investigate associations between the presence of farm animals around the home address and Q fever and pneumonia. Electronic medical record data for the year 2009 of all patients of 27 general practitioners (GPs) in a region with a high density of animal farms were used. Density of farm animals around the home address was calculated using a Geographic Information System. During the study period, a large Q fever outbreak occurred in this region. Associations between farm exposure variables and pneumonia or ‘other infectious disease’, the diagnosis code used by GPs for registration of Q fever, were analyzed in 22,406 children (0–17 y) and 70,142 adults (18–70 y), and adjusted for age and sex. In adults, clear exposure-response relationships between the number of goats within 5 km of the home address and pneumonia and ‘other infectious disease’ were observed. The association with ‘other infectious disease’ was particularly strong, with an OR [95%CI] of 12.03 [8.79–16.46] for the fourth quartile (>17,190 goats) compared with the first quartile (<2,251 goats). The presence of poultry within 1 km was associated with an increased incidence of pneumonia among adults (OR [95%CI] 1.25 [1.06–1.47]). A high density of goats in a densely populated region was associated with human Q fever. The use of GP records combined with individual exposure estimates using a Geographic Information System is a powerful approach to assess environmental health risks.
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Bernard H, Brockmann SO, Kleinkauf N, Klinc C, Wagner-Wiening C, Stark K, Jansen A. High seroprevalence of Coxiella burnetii antibodies in veterinarians associated with cattle obstetrics, Bavaria, 2009. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2012; 12:552-7. [PMID: 22607080 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2011.0879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Q fever is a zoonosis caused by Coxiella burnetii. Infection can result in severe disease. However, little is known about the risk of infection in veterinarians. In a cross-sectional study among German veterinarians, participants provided sera and completed an exposure questionnaire. We investigated predictors for seropositivity using multivariable logistic regression modelling. The 424 participants' median age was 40 (18-74) years, and 276 (65%) were female. Sera of 162 (38%) were positive for Coxiella burnetii phase II IgG antibodies (by ELISA and IFAT). Predictors for seropositivity were occupational exposure to cattle (aOR 2.83, 95% CI 1.64-4.87), occupational exposure to sheep (2.09, 1.22-3.58), male sex (1.9, 1.15-3.13), and increasing age (30-39 years: 4.91, 2.00-12.04; 40-49 years: 5.32, 2.12-13.33; >50 years: 6.70, 2.60-17.25; compared with <30 years). When investigating occupational exposure to cattle and sheep in detail in a separate model, the seroprevalence increased with increasing numbers of cattle obstetrics procedures performed per month, and with increasing numbers of individual cattle treated per week. The high antibody prevalence implies a high lifetime-risk of Q fever in veterinarians. Cattle veterinarians, especially those frequently performing obstetrics, should be counseled early in their career on the clinical picture of Q fever, and on specific risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen Bernard
- Robert Koch Institute, Department for Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Berlin, Germany.
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Hilbert A, Schmoock G, Lenzko H, Moog U, Diller R, Fröhlich A, Hoffmann L, Horner S, Elschner M, Tomaso H, Henning K, Neubauer H, Sprague LD. Prevalence of Coxiella burnetii in clinically healthy German sheep flocks. BMC Res Notes 2012; 5:152. [PMID: 22429653 PMCID: PMC3351016 DOI: 10.1186/1756-0500-5-152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2011] [Accepted: 03/19/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Current epidemiological data on the situation of Coxiella (C.) burnetii infections in sheep are missing, making risk assessment and the implementation of counteractive measures difficult. Using the German state of Thuringia as a model example, the estimated sero-, and antigen prevalence of C. burnetii (10% and 25%, respectively) was assessed at flock level in 39/252 randomly selected clinically healthy sheep flocks with more than 100 ewes and unknown abortion rate. Results The CHECKIT™ Q-fever Test Kit identified 11 (28%) antibody positive herds, whereas real-time PCR revealed the presence of C. burnetii DNA in 2 (5%) of the flocks. Multiple-locus variable number of tandem repeats analysis of 9 isolates obtained from one flock revealed identical profiles. All isolates contained the plasmid QpH1. Conclusions The results demonstrate that C. burnetii is present in clinically inconspicuous sheep flocks and sporadic flare-ups do occur as the notifications to the German animal disease reporting system show. Although C. burnetii infections are not a primary veterinary concern due to the lack of significant clinical impact on animal health (with the exception of goats), the eminent zoonotic risk for humans should not be underestimated. Therefore, strategies combining the interests of public and veterinary public health should include monitoring of flocks, the identification and culling of shedders as well as the administration of protective vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Hilbert
- Institut für Epidemiologie, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, National Reference Laboratory for Q-fever, Wusterhausen, Germany
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Vranakis I, Kokkini S, Chochlakis D, Sandalakis V, Pasparaki E, Minadakis G, Gikas A, Tselentis Y, Psaroulaki A. Serological survey of Q fever in Crete, southern Greece. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2012; 35:123-7. [PMID: 22261267 DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2011.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2011] [Revised: 11/07/2011] [Accepted: 11/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii, the causative agent of Q fever, is an obligatory intracellular bacterium with worldwide distribution. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of C. burnetii phase II antibodies in two different groups (high and low risk) of healthy human population and investigate the epidemiological characteristics of the infection in the island of Crete (southern Greece). Collection and testing by IFA of 493 sample sera for IgG and IgM antibodies against C. bumetii phase II antigen indicated a prevalence of IgG antibodies of 48.7%. Of the seropositive individuals, 34% also revealed IgM seropositive antibody titers. Analysis of 225 sample sera by IFA from high risk population presented a prevalence for C. burnetii of 62.2%. Our findings revealed that C. burnetii is highly endemic in Crete, indicating a high exposure of the population to the pathogen regardless of occupation or place of residence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iosif Vranakis
- Laboratory of Clinical Bacteriology, Parasitology, Zoonoses and Geographical Medicine, Medical School, University of Crete, Staurakia-Voutes, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
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Prabhu M, Nicholson WL, Roche AJ, Kersh GJ, Fitzpatrick KA, Oliver LD, Massung RF, Morrissey AB, Bartlett JA, Onyango JJ, Maro VP, Kinabo GD, Saganda W, Crump JA. Q fever, spotted fever group, and typhus group rickettsioses among hospitalized febrile patients in northern Tanzania. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 53:e8-15. [PMID: 21810740 DOI: 10.1093/cid/cir411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The importance of Q fever, spotted fever group rickettsiosis (SFGR), and typhus group rickettsiosis (TGR) as causes of febrile illness in sub-Saharan Africa is unknown; the putative role of Q fever as a human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) coinfection is unclear. METHODS We identified febrile inpatients in Moshi, Tanzania, from September 2007 through August 2008 and collected acute- and convalescent-phase serum samples. A ≥4-fold increase in immunoglobulin (Ig) G immunfluorescence assay (IFA) titer to Coxiella burnetii phase II antigen defined acute Q fever. A ≥4-fold increase in IgG IFA titer to Rickettsia conorii or Rickettsia typhi antigen defined SFGR and TGR, respectively. RESULTS Among 870 patients, 483 (55.5%) were tested for acute Q fever, and 450 (51.7%) were tested for acute SFGR and TGR. Results suggested acute Q fever in 24 (5.0%) patients and SFGR and TGR in 36 (8.0%) and 2 (0.5%) patients, respectively. Acute Q fever was associated with hepato- or splenomegaly (odds ratio [OR], 3.1; P = .028), anemia (OR, 3.0; P = .009), leukopenia (OR, 3.9; P = .013), jaundice (OR, 7.1; P = .007), and onset during the dry season (OR, 2.7; P = .021). HIV infection was not associated with acute Q fever (OR, 1.7; P = .231). Acute SFGR was associated with leukopenia (OR, 4.1; P = .003) and with evidence of other zoonoses (OR, 2.2; P = .045). CONCLUSIONS Despite being common causes of febrile illness in northern Tanzania, Q fever and SFGR are not diagnosed or managed with targeted antimicrobials. C. burnetii does not appear to be an HIV-associated co-infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malavika Prabhu
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, Duke University Medical Center, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27710, USA
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Vilibic-Cavlek T, Kucinar J, Ljubin-Sternak S, Kolaric B, Kaic B, Lazaric-Stefanovic L, Hunjak B, Mlinaric-Galinovic G. Prevalence of Coxiella burnetii antibodies among febrile patients in Croatia, 2008-2010. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2012; 12:293-6. [PMID: 22239180 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2011.0681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the widespread distribution of Q fever, the prevalence in humans is not accurately known, because many infected people seroconvert without symptoms or with a mild febrile disease. The aim of this study was to determine the seroprevalence of Q fever in different regions of Croatia. During a 2-year period (2008-2010), serum samples from 552 febrile patients with prolonged cough aged 1-88 were tested for the presence of Coxiella burnetii antibodies by using indirect immunofluorescent assay. Sera from 27.5% patients showed IgG antibodies. Serological evidence of C. burnetii infection was found in patients from all parts of Croatia. Seroprevalence rates significantly differed among regions from 21.5% to 41.2% (p=0.001). Men were more often seropositive (31.6%) than women (22.2%; p=0.016). According to age, a progressive increase in the IgG seropositivity rates was observed as ranging from 6.7% in children less than 10 years of age to 39.2% in patients aged 40-49 (p=0.001). Above the age of 50, the IgG seroprevalence remained stable. Patients from rural areas were more often seropositive than patients from urban areas (40.8% vs. 19%), p<0.001). Acute Q fever was confirmed in 5.8% of patients. Cases occurred throughout the year. A majority of cases were reported during summer months.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatjana Vilibic-Cavlek
- Department of Virology, Croatian National Institute of Public Health, School of Medicine University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia.
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Galanakis E, Bitsori M. Rickettsioses in children: a clinical approach. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2012; 719:145-62. [PMID: 22125042 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-0204-6_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
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