African Horse Sickness Virus Serotype 1 on Horse Farm, Thailand, 2020

Characterization of Culicoides and mosquito fauna at the National Zoological Garden of Rabat, Morocco

Zoos are considering to be essential places for the conservation of wild animal species. It is essential to prevent their infection by pathogens especially for those belonging to threatened or extinct species. Zoo captive animals are susceptible to several Culicoides and mosquito borne-viruses. In order to further evaluate the risk of pathogen transmission in zoos, it is essential to identify the presence of potential vector species, as well as the animals bitten by those vectors. For this purpose, Culicoides and mosquito species composition was investigated in ten sites from March to June 2021 for Culicoides (18 collection nights) and in four sites from April to June 2022 for mosquitoes (16 collection nights) at the National Zoological Garden of Rabat (ZGR), Morocco. Culicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) were collected using Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute traps (UV-light/suction traps (OVI type)), every two weeks. Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) were collected using BG-Pro mosquito trap (BGP) combined with a CO2 source as an attractant, on two consecutive days every two weeks. The blood meal of engorged Culicoides was amplified by PCR, sequenced, and blasted for host species identification. In total, 1584 individuals belonging to the Culicoides genus were collected (88.25 % females and 11.75 % males) belonging to at least 13 different species. Among the species collected, Culicoides newsteadi (33.28 %), C. imicola (23.74 %), C. circumscriptus (18.88 %) and C. obsoletus/C. scoticus (7.96 %) constituted the majority of the total catches. These species are proven or suspected vector species of bluetongue and African hose sickness viruses in the Mediterranean basin. For mosquitoes, 455 individuals belonging to four species of three genera were collected (97.58 % females and 2.42 % males): Culex pipiens s.l. (94.29 %) (vector species of West Nile and Rift Valley fever viruses), Culiseta longiareolata (4.81 %), Aedes detritus s.l. and Ae. caspius (representing together less than 1.00 %). The results of blood meal analyses revealed that Culicoides fed on humans (n = 7), camels (n = 2), and common eland (n = 2). The composition of Culicoides and mosquito fauna is characteristic of the Rabat region. The composition is thus mostly determined by the environment rather than by the animal species presence. The results highlighted that Culicoides fed on humans and ruminants. It is therefore likely that the zoo's animals could be threatened by arboviruses transmitted by domestic animals in the region. Particular attention must be paid to the prevention of vector-borne diseases to ensure the proper conservation of species.

Identification and Characterization of Linear Epitopes of Monoclonal Antibodies Against African Horse Sickness Virus Serotype 1 VP2 Protein

African horse sickness (AHS) is an acute, fatal, contagious disease of animals of the family Equidae and is caused by infection with the African horse sickness virus (AHSV). Based on the outer capsid protein VP2, AHSV is classified into nine serotypes (AHSV-1 to -9) with little or no serological cross-reactivity between them. In 2020, AHS outbreaks caused by AHSV-1 were reported in Thailand and Malaysia, marking the first occurrences of AHS in Southeast Asia. However, little is known about the antigenic profile of AHSV-1 VP2. In this study, a recombinant VP2 protein was expressed in Escherichia coli and used as an immunogen, and three monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), designated 7D11, 10A9, and 9E7, against AHSV-1 VP2, were generated. These three mAbs were then successfully used in IFA, WB, and ELISA for the detection of AHSV-1 VP2. Two overlapping linear epitopes, 670NEFDFE675 (E670-675) recognized by 9E7 and 670NEFDF674 (E670-674) recognized by 7D11 and 10A9, were identified through truncation of GST-fused VP2. Amino acid sequence alignment shows that the 670NEFDFE675 motif is completely conserved within AHSV-1 but is highly divergent in other AHSV serotypes. Our studies provide an important tool for basic research into AHSV-1 and for the diagnosis of AHSV-1.

A stochastic modeling study of quarantine strategies against foot-and-mouth disease risks through cattle trades across the Thailand-Myanmar border

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is an important endemic disease in livestock in Southeast Asia. Transboundary movement of animals may result in the transnational disease spread. A major cattle market is located at the Thailand-Myanmar border, where most cattle imported from Myanmar are traded. In this study, we built a stochastic susceptible-exposed-infectious-recovered (SEIR) model to investigate the effectiveness of a private animal quarantine service center in preventing FMDV from entering the major cattle market. We computed with different parameters and found that, with 50 % vaccine effectiveness, the risk of releasing infected cattle to the market per batch was generally low during the quarantine period of 21 and 28 days, with the risk ranging from 0.071 to 0.078 and 0.032 to 0.036, respectively. Despite the best scenario, the zero-risk state is difficult to attain. The sensitivity analysis highlights that the percentage of immune animals before entering the quarantine centers and the vaccine effectiveness are important factors. In conclusion, the 21-day quarantine period mitigates the risk of FMDV introduction into the cattle market. This control measure should be rigorously maintained to sustainably prevent FMDV outbreaks through transboundary animal movements, especially among countries in FMD-endemic regions.

Stability and Detection Limit of Avian Influenza, Newcastle Disease Virus, and African Horse Sickness Virus on Flinders Technology Associates Card by Conventional Polymerase Chain Reaction

The Flinders Technology Associates (FTA) card, a cotton-based cellulose membrane impregnated with a chaotropic agent, effectively inactivates infectious microorganisms, lyses cellular material, and fixes nucleic acid. The aim of this study is to assess the stability and detection limit of various RNA viruses, especially the avian influenza virus (AIV), Newcastle disease virus (NDV), and African horse sickness virus (AHSV), on the FTA card, which could significantly impact virus storage and transport practices. To achieve this, each virus dilution was inoculated onto an FTA card and stored at room temperature in plastic bags for durations ranging from 1 week to 6 months. Following storage, the target genome was detected using conventional reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. The present study demonstrated that the detection limit of AIV ranged from 1.17 to 6.17 EID50 values over durations ranging from 1 week to 5 months, while for NDV, it ranged from 2.83 to 5.83 ELD50 over the same duration. Additionally, the detection limit of AHSV was determined as 4.01 PFU for both 1 and 2 weeks, respectively. Based on the demonstrated effectiveness, stability, and safety implications observed in the study, FTA cards are recommended for virus storage and transport, thus facilitating the molecular detection and identification of RNA viral pathogens.

Biting Midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) as Vectors of Viruses

Biting midges of the genus Culicoides occur almost globally and can regionally and seasonally reach high abundances. Most species are hematophagous, feeding on all groups of vertebrates, including humans. In addition to being nuisance pests, they are able to transmit disease agents, with some viruses causing high morbidity and/or mortality in ruminants, horses and humans. Despite their impact on animal husbandry, public health and tourism, knowledge on the biology and ecology of culicoid biting midges and their interactions with ingested pathogens or symbiotic microorganisms is limited. Research is challenging due to unknown larval habitats, the insects' tiny size, the inability to establish and breed most species in the laboratory and the laborious maintenance of colonies of the few species that can be reared in the laboratory. Consequently, the natural transmission of pathogens has experimentally been demonstrated for few species while, for others, only indirect evidence of vector potential exists. Most experimental data are available for Culicoides sonorensis and C. nubeculosus, the only species kept in western-world insectaries. This contribution gives an overview on important biting midge vectors, transmitted viruses, culicoid-borne viral diseases and their epidemiologies and summarizes the little knowledge on interactions between biting midges, their microflora and culicoid-borne arboviruses.

Longitudinal humoral immune response and maternal immunity in horses after a single live-attenuated vaccination against African horse sickness during the disease outbreak in Thailand

Background and Aim

African horse sickness (AHS) has become a newly emerging disease after an outbreak in northeastern Thailand in March 2020. Mass vaccination in horses with live-attenuated AHS virus (AHSV) vaccine is essential for AHS control and prevention. This study aimed to monitor the longitudinal humoral immune response before and after a single vaccination using a live-attenuated vaccine against AHS in stallions, mares, and pregnant mares, including maternal immunity in foals born from pregnant mares during the outbreak in Thailand.

Materials and Methods

A total of 13 stallions and 23 non-pregnant and 21 pregnant mares were vaccinated with live-attenuated AHSV vaccines. Serum samples from selected horses were collected on the day of vaccination and 1, 6, 8, 9, 10, and 12-months post-vaccination. Furthermore, seven serum samples of foals born from vaccinated pregnant mares were collected on parturition date and 1, 3, and 6-months old. The antibody titer against AHS in all collected serum samples was evaluated using a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kit. All data were analyzed for mean and standard deviation for each group of samples using a spreadsheet program. Antibody titers between times were analyzed using a one-way analysis of variance as repeated measurement, and antibody titers between horse groups were analyzed using a general linear model for statistically significant differences when p < 0.05.

Results

In stallion and non-pregnant mare groups, there were no statistically significant differences in antibody titers in all 6 time periods after vaccination. The antibody titer in the pregnant mare group showed a non-statistically significant difference between each gestation stage, except at 8 months post-vaccination. Furthermore, increasing antibody titers on days 1 and 3 after receiving colostrum in foals indicate the major role of transcolostral antibody transfer for AHS.

Conclusion

This study demonstrated that a single AHS vaccination using a live-attenuated vaccine could stimulate high antibody titers sufficient for AHS control and prevention during the outbreak in Thailand. Similarly, the antibody response of vaccinated horses of both genders, including various stages of pregnant mares, was statistically not different.

Molecular Identification of Culicoides Species and Host Preference Blood Meal in the African Horse Sickness Outbreak-Affected Area in Hua Hin District, Prachuap Khiri Khan Province, Thailand

African horse sickness (AHS) was reported as an outbreak in Thailand in 2020. Hematophagous insects from the genus Culicoides are the suspected vector responsible for AHS transmission. Horses in Hua Hin district, Prachuab Khiri Khan province, Thailand, were affected and died from AHS in 2020. However, the potential Culicoides species and its host preference blood meal in the affected areas are unknown. To investigate the potential vectors of AHS, Culicoides were collected using ultraviolet light traps placed near horse stables. Six horse farms, including five farms with AHS history and one farm without AHS history, were included in this study. Morphological and molecular identification of the Culicoides species was performed. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting the cytochrome b oxidase I (COXI) gene for confirmation of the Culicoides species, identification of the prepronociceptin (PNOC) gene for host preference blood meal, and bidirectional sequencing were conducted. Consequently, 1008 female Culicoides were collected, consisting of 708 and 300 samples captured at positions A and B at a distance of <2 and >5 m from the horse, respectively. Twelve Culicoides species identified by morphology were noted, including C. oxystoma (71.92%), C. imicola (20.44%), C. actoni (2.28%), C. flavipunctatus (1.98%), C. asiana (0.99%), C. peregrinus (0.60%), C. huffi (0.60%), C. brevitarsis (0.40%), C. innoxius (0.30%), C. histrio (0.30%), C. minimus (0.10%), and C. geminus (0.10%). The PCR detection of the Culicoides COXI gene confirmed Culicoides species in 23 DNA samples. PCR targeting the PNOC gene revealed that the Culicoides collected in this study fed on Equus caballus (86.25%), Canis lupus familiaris (6.25%), Sus scrofa (3.75%), and Homo sapiens (3.75%) for their blood meal. Human blood was identified from two samples of C. oxystoma and a sample of C. imicola. Three dominant species including C. oxystoma, C. imicola, and C. actoni that were reported in the Hua Hin area prefer to feed on horse blood. Moreover, C. oxystoma, C. imicola, and C. bravatarsis also feed on canine blood. This study revealed the species of Culicoides in Hua Hin district, Thailand, after the AHS outbreak.

The seroprevalence of African horse sickness virus, and risk factors to exposure, in domestic dogs in Tshwane, South Africa

Dogs are the only non-equid species to develop the fatal form of African horse sickness (AHS). Research conducted in 2013 questioned the long-held belief that naturally occurring cases of AHS in dogs were contracted exclusively through the ingestion of contaminated horse meat. Culicoides midges, the vector of AHS virus (AHSV) for horses, have an aversion to dog blood meals and dogs were believed to be dead-end or incidental hosts. More recently, dog mortalities have occurred in the absence of horse meat consumption and vector transmission has been suspected. The current study is a retrospective serological survey of AHSV exposure in dogs from an endemic area. Dog sera collected from dogs (n = 366) living in the city of Tshwane, Gauteng Province, South Africa, were randomly selected from a biobank at a veterinary teaching hospital, corresponding to the years 2014-2019. The study used a laboratory in-house indirect recombinant VP7 antigen-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (iELISA) with a test cut-off calculated from AHSV exposure-free dog sera (n = 32). Study AHSV seroprevalence was 6 % (22/366) with an estimated true prevalence of 4.1 % (95 % confidence interval (CI) = 1.3-8.1 %). Incidence was estimated for dogs with multiple serological results with seroconversion occurring at a rate of 2.3 seroconversions per 10 dog years at risk (95 % CI = 0.6-6.2). A subsection of the study sera was tested with AHSV viral neutralisation test (VN) (n = 42) for serotype determination. Antibodies to AHSV serotype 6 were most prevalent (90 %) in VN seropositive dogs (n = 20) with most dogs seemingly subclinically infected (>95 %). Seroprevalence descriptively varied by year and identified risk factors were annual rainfall > 754 mm (odds ratio (OR) = 5.76; 95 % CI = 2.22 - 14.95; p < 0.001), medium human population densities, 783-1663 people/km² (OR = 7.14; 95 % CI = 1.39 - 36.73; p = 0.019) and 1664-2029 people/km² (OR = 6.74; 95 % CI = 1.40 - 32.56; p = 0.018), and the month of March (OR = 5.12; 95 % CI = 1.41 - 18.61; p = 0.013). All identified risk factors were consistent with midge-borne transmission to dogs. The relatively high seroprevalence and seroconversion rates suggest frequent exposure of dogs to AHSV and indicates the need to investigate the role dogs might play in the overall epidemiology and transmission of AHSV.

Experience of using expired lyophilized snake antivenom during a medical emergency situation in Lao People's Democratic Republic--A possible untapped resource to tackle antivenom shortage in Southeast Asia

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the safety and efficacy of expired lyophilized snake antivenom of Thai origin during a medical emergency in 2020/2021 in Lao People's Democratic Republic.

METHODS

Observational case series of patients with potentially life-threatening envenoming who consented to the administration of expired antivenom between August 2020 and May 2022.

RESULTS

A total of 31 patients received the expired antivenom. Malayan pit vipers (Calloselasma rhodostoma) were responsible for 26 (84%) cases and green pit vipers (Trimeresurus species) for two cases (6%). In three patients (10%) the responsible snake could not be identified. Of these, two presented with signs of neurotoxicity and one with coagulopathy. A total of 124 vials of expired antivenom were administered. Fifty-nine vials had expired 2-18 months earlier, 56 vials 19-36 months and nine vials 37-60 months before. Adverse effects of variable severity were observed in seven (23%) patients. All 31 patients fully recovered from systemic envenoming.

CONCLUSIONS

Under closely controlled conditions and monitoring the use of expired snake antivenom proved to be effective and safe. Discarding this precious medication is an unnecessary waste, and it could be a valuable resource in ameliorating the current shortage of antivenom. Emergency use authorization granted by health authorities and preclinical testing of expired antivenoms could provide the support and legal basis for such an approach.

Sensitivity and specificity for African horse sickness antibodies detection using monovalent and polyvalent vaccine antigen-based dot blotting

Background and Aim

The immune responses of animals infected with African horse sickness (AHS) virus are determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), complement fixation, and virus neutralization test. During the outbreaks of AHS in Thailand, the immune response after vaccination has been monitored using commercial test kits such as blocking ELISA, which are expensive imported products unavailable commercially in Thailand. This study aimed to assess the sensitivity and specificity of anti-AHS virus antibodies using dot blotting based on monovalent and polyvalent strains of live attenuated AHS vaccine.

Materials and Methods

A total of 186 horse sera, namely, 93 AHS-unvaccinated samples and 93 AHS-vaccinated samples, were used in this study. All sera underwent antibodies detection using commercial blocking ELISA and in-house dot blotting based on monovalent and polyvalent strains of live attenuated AHS vaccine. The numbers of true positive, false positive, true negative, and false negative results in the dot blotting were compared with those in blocking ELISA and the sensitivity and specificity of dot blotting were assessed.

Results

For the monovalent antigen, there were 78, 19, 74, and 15 true positive, false positive, true negative, and false negative results, respectively, while for the polyvalent antigen, the corresponding numbers were 84, 34, 58, and 9. Meanwhile, the diagnostic sensitivity and specificity for monovalent antigen were 83.87% and 79.57%, respectively, but 90.32% and 62.37% for polyvalent antigen.

Conclusion

Dot blotting for AHS antibodies detection using vaccine antigen showed high sensitivity and rather a high specificity compared with the findings with the commercial ELISA test kit. In countries where commercial ELISA test kits are not available and when the size of a serum sample is small, dot blotting could become a good alternative test given its advantages, including its simplicity, rapidity, and convenience. To the best of our knowledge, these findings are the first report on the use of dot blotting for detecting AHS antibodies in horses. In conclusion, monovalent antigen-based dot blotting could be used as a reliable alternative serodiagnostic test for monitoring AHS humoral immune response, especially in vaccinated horses.

Development of Differentiating Infected from Vaccinated Animals (DIVA) Real-Time PCR for African Horse Sickness Virus Serotype 1

African horse sickness (AHS) is a highly infectious and often fatal disease caused by 9 serotypes of the orbivirus African horse sickness virus (AHSV). In March 2020, an AHS outbreak was reported in Thailand in which AHSV serotype 1 was identified as the causative agent. Trivalent live attenuated vaccines serotype 1, 3, and 4 were used in a targeted vaccination campaign within a 50-km radius surrounding the infected cases, which promptly controlled the spread of the disease. However, AHS-like symptoms in vaccinated horses required laboratory diagnostic methods to differentiate infected horses from vaccinated horses, especially for postvaccination surveillance. We describe a real-time reverse transcription PCR-based assay for rapid characterization of the affecting field strain. The development and validation of this assay should imbue confidence in differentiating AHS-vaccinated horses from nonvaccinated horses. This method should be applied to determining the epidemiology of AHSV in future outbreaks.

Preliminary Study on Comparative Efficacy of Four Light Sources for Trapping Culicoides spp. (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) in Prachuap Khiri Khan Province, Thailand

The light trap is an important tool to determine the presence and abundance of vectors in the field. However, no one has studied the efficiency of light traps for collecting Culicoides in Thailand. In the present study, the efficacy of four light sources was evaluated in Prachuap Khiri Khan province, Thailand. Incandescent (INCND) light, white fluorescent (WHT-FLR) light, ultraviolet fluorescent (UV-FLR) light, and UV light-emitting diode (UV-LED) light were tested using commercial traps. In total, 30,866 individuals of Culicoides species were collected from November 2020 to June 2021, of which 21,016 were trapped on site 1 and 6,731 were trapped on site 2. The two most abundant Culicoides species were C. imicola (54%) and C. oxystoma (31.2%). UV-FLR was highly effective, followed by UV-LED light, WHT-FLR light, and INCND light, respectively, for Culicoides collection. Significantly, more Culicoides species were collected in those traps baited with UV-FLR light, UV-LED light, or WHT-FLR light than for INCND light traps. Traps equipped with UV-FLR lights can be recommended to trap Culcoides biting midges for monitoring purposes.