1
|
Knaryan VH, Sarukhanyan FP. [Ca2+-regulated enzymes calpain and calcineurin in neurodegenerative processes and prospects for neuroprotective pharmacotherapy]. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova 2023; 123:32-40. [PMID: 37490663 DOI: 10.17116/jnevro202312307132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/27/2023]
Abstract
Calcium (Ca2+) and Ca2+-regulated enzymes calpain and calcineurin are the key molecules of signaling mechanisms in neurons and ensure the normal course of intracellular neurochemical and neurophysiological processes. The imbalance and increase in the intracellular level of Ca2+ correlates with the activation of calpain and calcineurin. Inactivation of endogenous inhibitors and/or absence of exogenous pharmacological inhibitors of these enzymes may induce a cascade of intracellular mechanisms that are detrimental to the structural integrity and functional activity of neurons. The interrelated processes of Ca2+ imbalance, dysregulation of calpain and calcineurin are directly related to the development of intracellular pathophysiological reactions leading to the degeneration and death of selective neuronal populations in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. The review briefly presents the characteristics of calpain and calcineurin, their interrelated role in the neurodegeneration processes. Data on the efficiency of the exogenous inhibitors (in vivo, in vitro) point out the potential role of pharmacological regulation of calpain and calcineurin for neuroprotection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- V H Knaryan
- Buniatian Institute of Biochemistry NAS RA, Yerevan, Armenia
| | - F P Sarukhanyan
- Buniatian Institute of Biochemistry NAS RA, Yerevan, Armenia
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Li M, Zhou S, Wang G, Qiao L, Yi S, Li T, Pan X, Liu X, Tang Z. Calpain Inhibitor Calpeptin Improves Alzheimer's Disease-Like Cognitive Impairments and Pathologies in a Diabetes Mellitus Rat Model. Neurotox Res 2022; 40:1248-1260. [PMID: 36018506 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-022-00561-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Revised: 08/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Diabetes mellitus (DM) has been considered an accelerator of Alzheimer's disease (AD), but the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying this effect are not fully understood. Here, we attempted to determine the role and regulatory mechanism of calpain in the AD-like cognitive decline and pathological changes in rats caused by DM. In the initial stages, our results verified that DM model rats showed cognitive impairment, as well as a loss of neurons, decreased pericyte marker (PDGFR-β and α-SMA), and calpain-2 expression and amyloid-β (Aβ) deposition in the hippocampal tissues. In high glucose-induced primary pericytes, the cell apoptotic rate was increased, and cell proliferation was inhibited in a time-dependent manner. The protein level of calpain-2 was also upregulated by HG induction, but the level of calpain-1 did not change with HG treatment, which was also observed in DM model rats. Subsequently, some DM model rats were administered calpeptin, an inhibitor of calpain. Our data revealed that calpeptin treatment significantly suppressed calpain-1 and calpain-2 expression in the hippocampal tissues and effectively improved the cognitive impairments of DM model rats. Neuronal loss, Aβ accumulation, pericyte loss, inflammation, and oxidative stress injury in the hippocampal tissues of DM model rats were also partly rescued by calpeptin administration. Our work demonstrated that the calpain inhibitor calpeptin could alleviate DM-induced AD-like cognitive impairments and pathological changes in rats, and this effect may be associated with pericytes. Calpeptin may become a promising drug to treat the AD-like complications of DM.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Min Li
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330006, China
- Institute of Neuroscience, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330006, China
| | - Siqi Zhou
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330006, China
| | - Gege Wang
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330006, China
| | - Luyao Qiao
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330006, China
| | - Shouqin Yi
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330006, China
| | - Tianpei Li
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330006, China
| | - Xin Pan
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330006, China
| | - Xu Liu
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330006, China
| | - Zhenyu Tang
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330006, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Calpain Inhibitors as Potential Therapeutic Modulators in Neurodegenerative Diseases. Neurochem Res 2022; 47:1125-1149. [PMID: 34982393 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-021-03521-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Revised: 12/27/2021] [Accepted: 12/28/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
It is considered a significant challenge to understand the neuronal cell death mechanisms with a suitable cure for neurodegenerative disorders in the coming years. Calpains are one of the best-considered "cysteine proteases activated" in brain disorders. Calpain is an important marker and mediator in the pathophysiology of neurodegeneration. Calpain activation being the essential neurodegenerative factor causing apoptotic machinery activation, it is crucial to develop reliable and effective approaches to prevent calpain-mediated apoptosis in degenerating neurons. It has been recently seen that the "inhibition of calpain activation" has appeared as a possible therapeutic target for managing neurodegenerative diseases. A systematic literature review of PubMed, Medline, Bentham, Scopus, and EMBASE (Elsevier) databases was conducted. The present article reviews the basic pathobiology and role of selective calpain inhibitors used in various neurodegenerative diseases as a therapeutic target.
Collapse
|
4
|
Gleitze S, Paula-Lima A, Núñez MT, Hidalgo C. The calcium-iron connection in ferroptosis-mediated neuronal death. Free Radic Biol Med 2021; 175:28-41. [PMID: 34461261 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2021.08.231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Revised: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Iron, through its participation in oxidation/reduction processes, is essential for the physiological function of biological systems. In the brain, iron is involved in the development of normal cognitive functions, and its lack during development causes irreversible cognitive damage. Yet, deregulation of iron homeostasis provokes neuronal damage and death. Ferroptosis, a newly described iron-dependent cell death pathway, differs at the morphological, biochemical, and genetic levels from other cell death types. Ferroptosis is characterized by iron-mediated lipid peroxidation, depletion of the endogenous antioxidant glutathione and altered mitochondrial morphology. Although iron promotes the emergence of Ca2+ signals via activation of redox-sensitive Ca2+ channels, the role of Ca2+ signaling in ferroptosis has not been established. The early dysregulation of the cellular redox state observed in ferroptosis is likely to disturb Ca2+ homeostasis and signaling, facilitating ferroptotic neuronal death. This review presents an overview of the role of iron and ferroptosis in neuronal function, emphasizing the possible involvement of Ca2+ signaling in these processes. We propose, accordingly, that the iron-ferroptosis-Ca2+ association orchestrates the progression of cognitive dysfunctions and memory loss that occurs in neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, to prevent iron dyshomeostasis and ferroptosis, we suggest the use of drugs that target the abnormal Ca2+ signaling caused by excessive iron levels as therapy for neurological disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Gleitze
- Biomedical Neuroscience Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Andrea Paula-Lima
- Biomedical Neuroscience Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile; Institute for Research in Dental Sciences, Faculty of Dentistry, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile; Department of Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Marco T Núñez
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Cecilia Hidalgo
- Biomedical Neuroscience Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile; Department of Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile; Physiology and Biophysics Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences and Center for Exercise, Metabolism and Cancer Studies, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Han S, Zhang D, Dong Q, Wang X, Wang L. Overexpression of neuroserpin in larval and adult zebrafish shows different behavioral phenotypes. Neurosci Lett 2021; 762:136175. [PMID: 34400286 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2021.136175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Revised: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Serpini1, which encodes neuroserpin, has been implicated in the development and maintenance of the nervous system. In this study, an inducible neuroserpin overexpression transgenic zebrafish was generated to investigate its role in different developmental stages. Neuroserpin overexpression was induced by doxycycline in larval and adult zebrafish respectively. Locomotion and thigmotaxis were recorded and analyzed using the ZebraBox high-throughput monitoring equipment and the ZebraLab software system. We find that Tg (serpini1) (+DOX) zebrafish larvae are more hypoactive than their wild-type counterparts at 7 day-postfertilization and anxiety-like behavior is observed in Tg (serpini1) (+DOX) adult zebrafish at 3 month-postfertilization. Furthermore, RNA-sequencing analysis reveals that neuroserpin overexpression affects neurodegeneration-related gene expression. In summary, we report that neuroserpin overexpression in larval and adult zebrafish shows different behavioral phenotypes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sha Han
- Department of Neurology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Wulumuqi Zhong Road, Shanghai 200040, People's Republic of China
| | - Dongyang Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Wulumuqi Zhong Road, Shanghai 200040, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiang Dong
- Department of Neurology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Wulumuqi Zhong Road, Shanghai 200040, People's Republic of China
| | - Xu Wang
- Cancer Metabolism Laboratory, Cancer Research Institute, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai 200032, People's Republic of China
| | - Liang Wang
- Department of Neurology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Wulumuqi Zhong Road, Shanghai 200040, People's Republic of China.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Metwally E, Zhao G, Zhang YQ. The calcium-dependent protease calpain in neuronal remodeling and neurodegeneration. Trends Neurosci 2021; 44:741-752. [PMID: 34417060 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2021.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2021] [Revised: 07/04/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Calpains are evolutionarily conserved and widely expressed Ca2+-activated cysteine proteases that act at neutral pH. The activity of calpains is tightly regulated, given that their abnormal activation can have deleterious effects leading to promiscuous cleavage of various targets. Genetic mutations in the genes encoding calpains are associated with human diseases, while abnormally elevated Ca2+ levels promote Ca2+-dependent calpain activation in pathologies associated with ischemic insults and neurodegeneration. In this review, we discuss recent findings on the regulation of calpain activity and activation as revealed through pharmacological, genetic, and optogenetic approaches. Furthermore, we highlight studies elucidating the role of calpains in dendrite pruning and axon degeneration in the context of Ca2+ homeostasis. Finally, we discuss future directions for the study of calpains and potential therapeutic strategies for inhibiting calpain activity in neurodegenerative diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elsayed Metwally
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 10080, China; Department of Cytology and Histology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 41522, Egypt
| | - Guoli Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Yong Q Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 10080, China.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Proteomic identification of select protein variants of the SNARE interactome associated with cognitive reserve in a large community sample. Acta Neuropathol 2021; 141:755-770. [PMID: 33646358 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-021-02282-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Age-related neuropathologies progressively impair cognitive abilities by damaging synaptic function. We aimed to identify key components within the presynaptic SNARE (soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor) machinery associated with cognitive performance and estimate their potential contribution to brain reserve in old age. We used targeted SRM proteomics to quantify amounts of 60 peptides, encoded in 30 different genes, in postmortem specimens of the prefrontal cortex from 1209 participants of two aging studies, with available antemortem cognitive evaluations and postmortem neuropathologic assessments. We found that select (but not all) proteoforms are strongly associated with cognitive function and the burden of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology. Specifically, greater abundance of STX1A (but not other syntaxins), SYT12, full-length SNAP25, and the GABAergic STXBP1 variant were robustly associated with better cognitive performance. By contrast, greater abundance of other presynaptic proteins (e.g., STXBP5 or tomosyn, STX7, or SYN2) showed a negative influence on cognition. Regression models adjusting for demographic and pathologic variables showed that altered levels of these protein species explained 7.7% additional between-subject variance in cognition (more than any individual age-related neuropathology in the model), suggesting that these molecules constitute key elements of brain reserve. Network analyses indicated that those peptides associated with brain reserve, and closest to the SNARE fusogenic activity, showed greater centrality measures and were better connected in the network. Validation assays confirmed the selective loss of the STX1A (but not STX1B) isoform in cognitively impaired cases. In rodent and human brains, STX1A was selectively located at glutamatergic terminals. However, in AD brains, STX1A was redistributed adjacent to neuritic pathology, and markedly expressed in astrocytes. Our study provides strong evidence, indicating that select presynaptic proteins are key in maintaining brain reserve. Compromised ability to sustain expression levels of these proteins may trigger synaptic dysfunction and concomitant cognitive impairment.
Collapse
|
8
|
Knopp RC, Jastaniah A, Dubrovskyi O, Gaisina I, Tai L, Thatcher GRJ. Extending the Calpain-Cathepsin Hypothesis to the Neurovasculature: Protection of Brain Endothelial Cells and Mice from Neurotrauma. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2021; 4:372-385. [PMID: 33615187 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.0c00217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The calpain-cathepsin hypothesis posits a key role for elevated calpain-1 and cathepsin-B activity in the neurodegeneration underlying neurotrauma and multiple disorders including Alzheimer's disease (AD). AD clinical trials were recently halted on alicapistat, a selective calpain-1 inhibitor, because of insufficient exposure of neurons to the drug. In contrast to neuroprotection, the ability of calpain-1 and cathepsin-B inhibitors to protect the blood-brain barrier (BBB), is understudied. Since cerebrovascular dysfunction underlies vascular dementia, is caused by ischemic stroke, and is emerging as an early feature in the progression of AD, we studied protection of brain endothelial cells (BECs) by selective and nonselective calpain-1 and cathepsin-B inhibitors. We show these inhibitors protect both neurons and murine BECs from ischemia-reperfusion injury. Cultures of primary BECs from ALDH2 -/- mice that manifest enhanced oxidative stress were sensitive to ischemia, leading to reduced cell viability and loss of tight junction proteins; this damage was rescued by calpain-1 and cathepsin-B inhibitors. In ALDH2 -/- mice 24 h after mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI), BBB damage was reflected by significantly increased fluorescein extravasation and perturbation of tight junction proteins, eNOS, MMP-9, and GFAP. Both calpain and cathepsin-B inhibitors alleviated BBB dysfunction caused by mTBI. No clear advantage was shown by selective versus nonselective calpain inhibitors in these studies. The lack of recognition of the ability of calpain inhibitors to protect the BBB may have led to the premature abandonment of this therapeutic approach in AD clinical trials and requires further mechanistic studies of cerebrovascular protection by calpain-1 inhibitors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rachel C Knopp
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC), Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
| | - Ammar Jastaniah
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC), Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
| | - Oleksii Dubrovskyi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC), Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
| | - Irina Gaisina
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC), Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States.,UICentre (Drug Discovery @ UIC), University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC), Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
| | - Leon Tai
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC), Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
| | - Gregory R J Thatcher
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, United States
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Han S, Fei F, Sun S, Zhang D, Dong Q, Wang X, Wang L. Increased anxiety was found in serpini1 knockout zebrafish larval. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2021; 534:1013-1019. [PMID: 33168193 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2020.10.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Serpini1, which encodes neuroserpin, has been implicated in the development and normal function of the nervous system. Mutations in serpini1 cause familial encephalopathy, a rare neurodegenerative disorder characterized with neuroserpin inclusion bodies. However, function of neuroserpin in the nervous system is not fully understood. In this study, we generated a novel serpini1 mutant zebrafish model to investigate the loss of function of neuroserpin. Serpini1- deficient mutation was created with the CRISPR/Cas9 technique. No severe morphological characteristics were found in serpini1- deficient zebrafish. Serpini1-/- zebrafish larvae did not cause locomotor defects but displayed anxiety-like behavior. Extension of motoneurons axon defect was observed in serpini1-/- zebrafish. Furthermore, RNA-sequencing analysis revealed that loss of serpini1 resulted in affected expression of neurodegeneration-related genes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sha Han
- Department of Neurology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Wulumuqi Zhong Road, Shanghai, 200040, People's Republic of China
| | - Fei Fei
- Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, 321 Zhongshan Road, Nanjing, 210008, People's Republic of China
| | - Shaoyang Sun
- Key Laboratory of Metabolism and Molecular Medicine, Ministry Education, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, People's Republic of China
| | - Dongyang Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Wulumuqi Zhong Road, Shanghai, 200040, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiang Dong
- Department of Neurology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Wulumuqi Zhong Road, Shanghai, 200040, People's Republic of China
| | - Xu Wang
- Cancer Metabolism Laboratory, Cancer Research Institute Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai, 200032, People's Republic of China
| | - Liang Wang
- Department of Neurology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Wulumuqi Zhong Road, Shanghai, 200040, People's Republic of China.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Jastaniah A, Gaisina IN, Knopp RC, Thatcher GRJ. Synthesis of α-Ketoamide-Based Stereoselective Calpain-1 Inhibitors as Neuroprotective Agents. ChemMedChem 2020; 15:2280-2285. [PMID: 32840034 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202000385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Revised: 08/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Calpain inhibitors have been proposed as drug candidates for neurodegenerative disorders, with ABT-957 entering clinical trials for Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment. The structure of ABT-957 was very recently disclosed, and trials were terminated owing to inadequate CNS concentrations to obtain a pharmacodynamic effect. The multistep synthesis of an α-ketoamide peptidomimetic inhibitor series potentially including ABT-957 was optimized to yield diastereomerically pure compounds that are potent and selective for calpain-1 over papain and cathepsins B and K. As the final oxidation step, with its optimized synthesis protocol, does not alter the configuration of the substrate, the synthesis of the diastereomeric pair (R)-1-benzyl-N-((S)-4-((4-fluorobenzyl)amino)-3,4-dioxo-1-phenylbutan-2-yl)-5-oxopyrrolidine-2-carboxamide (1 c) and (R)-1-benzyl-N-((R)-4-((4-fluorobenzyl)amino)-3,4-dioxo-1-phenylbutan-2-yl)-5-oxopyrrolidine-2-carboxamide (1 g) was feasible. This allowed the exploration of stereoselective inhibition of calpain-1, with 1 c (IC50 =78 nM) being significantly more potent than 1 g. Moreover, inhibitor 1 c restored cognitive function in amnestic mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ammar Jastaniah
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 S. Wood Street, Chicago, IL., 60612, USA
| | - Irina N Gaisina
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 S. Wood Street, Chicago, IL., 60612, USA
| | - Rachel C Knopp
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 S. Wood Street, Chicago, IL., 60612, USA
| | - Gregory R J Thatcher
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 S. Wood Street, Chicago, IL., 60612, USA
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Liu B, Huang B, Liu J, Shi JS. Dendrobium nobile Lindl alkaloid and metformin ameliorate cognitive dysfunction in senescence-accelerated mice via suppression of endoplasmic reticulum stress. Brain Res 2020; 1741:146871. [PMID: 32380088 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2020.146871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2020] [Revised: 04/06/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The senescence-accelerated mouse prone 8 (SAMP8) mice have many pathological features of Alzheimer's disease (AD) with aging. We previously reported that Dendrobium nobile Lindl alkaloid (DNLA) effectively improved cognitive deficits in multiple Alzheimer's disease (AD) models. This study further used SAMP8 mice to study the anti-aging effects of DNLA, focusing on endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. DNLA and metformin were orally administered to SAMP8 mice starting at 4-month of age for 6 months. Behavioral tests were performed in 10-month-old SAMP8 mice and age-matched SAMR1 control mice. At the end of experiment, neuron damage was evaluated by histology and transmission electron microscopy. ER stress-related proteins were analyzed with Western-blot. DNLA improved learning and memory impairments, reduced the loss of neurons and Nissl bodies in the hippocampus and cortex. DNLA ameliorated ER dilation and swelling in the hippocampal neurons. DNLA down-regulated the protein kinase RNA-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK) signaling pathway, decreased calpain 1, GSK-3β and Cdk5 activities and the Tau hyper-phosphorylation. The effects of DNLA were comparable to metformin. In summary, DNLA was effective in improving cognitive deficits in aged SAMP8 mice, possibly via suppression of ER stress-related PERK signaling pathway, sequential inhibition of calpain 1, GSK-3β and Cdk5 activities, and eventually reducing the hyper-phosphorylation of Tau.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bo Liu
- Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education and Joint International Research Lab of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, China
| | - Bo Huang
- Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education and Joint International Research Lab of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, China
| | - Jie Liu
- Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education and Joint International Research Lab of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, China
| | - Jing-Shan Shi
- Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education and Joint International Research Lab of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, China.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Jantos K, Kling A, Mack H, Hornberger W, Moeller A, Nimmrich V, Lao Y, Nijsen M. Discovery of ABT-957: 1-Benzyl-5-oxopyrrolidine-2-carboxamides as selective calpain inhibitors with enhanced metabolic stability. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2019; 29:1968-1973. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2019.05.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Revised: 05/16/2019] [Accepted: 05/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
|
13
|
Fan YG, Guo T, Han XR, Liu JL, Cai YT, Xue H, Huang XS, Li YC, Wang ZY, Guo C. Paricalcitol accelerates BACE1 lysosomal degradation and inhibits calpain-1 dependent neuronal loss in APP/PS1 transgenic mice. EBioMedicine 2019; 45:393-407. [PMID: 31303501 PMCID: PMC6642335 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2019.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2019] [Revised: 07/01/2019] [Accepted: 07/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Recent studies have revealed that vitamin D deficiency may increase the risk of Alzheimer's disease, and vitamin D supplementation may be effective strategy to ameliorate the neurodegenerative process in Alzheimer's disease patients. Paricalcitol (PAL), a low-calcemic vitamin D receptor agonist, is clinically used to treat secondary hyperparathyroidism. However, the potential application of PAL for treating neurodegenerative disorders remains unexplored. Methods The APP/PS1 mice were intraperitoneally injected with PAL or vehicle every other day for 15 weeks. The β-amyloid (Aβ) production was confirmed using immunostaining and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay. The underlying mechanism was verified by western blot and immunostaining in vivo and in vitro. Findings Long-term PAL treatment clearly reduced β-amyloid (Aβ) generation and neuronal loss in APP/PS1 transgenic mouse brains. PAL stimulated the expression of low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1 (LRP1) possibly through inhibiting sterol regulatory element binding protein-2 (SREBP2); PAL also promoted LRP1-mediated β-site APP cleavage enzyme 1 (BACE1) transport to late endosomes, thus increasing the lysosomal degradation of BACE1. Furthermore, PAL diminished 8-hydroxyguanosine (8-OHdG) generation in neuronal mitochondria via enhancing base excision repair (BER), resulting in the attenuation of calpain-1-mediated neuronal loss. Interpretation The present data demonstrate that PAL can reduce Aβ generation through accelerating BACE1 lysosomal degradation and can inhibit neuronal loss through suppressing mitochondrial 8-OHdG generation. Hence, PAL might be a promising agent for treating Alzheimer's disease. Fund This study was financially supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China (U1608282).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yong-Gang Fan
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, NO.195, Chuangxin Road, Hunnan District, Shenyang 110169, China
| | - Tian Guo
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, NO.195, Chuangxin Road, Hunnan District, Shenyang 110169, China
| | - Xiao-Ran Han
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, NO.195, Chuangxin Road, Hunnan District, Shenyang 110169, China
| | - Jun-Lin Liu
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, NO.195, Chuangxin Road, Hunnan District, Shenyang 110169, China
| | - Yu-Ting Cai
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, NO.195, Chuangxin Road, Hunnan District, Shenyang 110169, China
| | - Han Xue
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, NO.195, Chuangxin Road, Hunnan District, Shenyang 110169, China
| | - Xue-Shi Huang
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, NO.195, Chuangxin Road, Hunnan District, Shenyang 110169, China
| | - Yan-Chun Li
- Department of Medicine, the University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Zhan-You Wang
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, NO.195, Chuangxin Road, Hunnan District, Shenyang 110169, China; Institute of Health Sciences, Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, China Medical University, Shenyang 110122, China.
| | - Chuang Guo
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, NO.195, Chuangxin Road, Hunnan District, Shenyang 110169, China.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Zhu L, Gong L, Yang T, Xiao X. Calpastatin Mediates Development of Alzheimer's Disease in Diabetes. J Alzheimers Dis 2019; 68:1051-1059. [PMID: 30909245 DOI: 10.3233/jad-190004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Aged people have a high chance to develop two prevalent diseases, diabetes and Alzheimer's disease (AD), which are characterized with hyperglycemia and neurodegeneration, respectively. Interestingly, recent evidence suggest that diabetes is a predisposing factor for AD. Nevertheless, the mechanisms underlying the association of diabetes with AD remain poorly defined. Here, we studied the effects of diabetes on AD in mice. The APP-PS1 mouse, an AD-prone strain, was administrated with streptozotocin (STZ) to destroy 75% beta cell mass to induce sustained hyperglycemia. We found that STZ-treated APP-PS1 mice exhibited poorer performance in the social recognition test, Morris water maze, and plus-maze discriminative avoidance task, compared to saline-treated normoglycemic APP-PS1 mice, likely resulting from increases in brain deposition of amyloid-β peptide aggregates (Aβ). Since formation of Aβ is known to be induced by protein hyperphosphorylation mediated by calpain (CAPN)-induced cleavage of p35 into p25, we examined levels of these proteins in mouse brain. We detected not only increased p35-to-p25 conversion, but also enhanced CAPN1 activity via increased protein but not mRNA levels. The internal CAPN1 inhibitor, calpastatin (CAST), was downregulated in STZ-treated APP-PS1 mouse brain, as a basis for the increase in CAPN1. In vitro, a human neuronal cell line, HCN-2, increased CAPN1 activity and downregulated CAST levels when incubated for 8 days in high glucose level, resulting in increased cell apoptosis. Together, these data suggest that chronic hyperglycemia may promote AD development through downregulating CAST.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lingyan Zhu
- Department of Cardiology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of NanChang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Li Gong
- Department of Cardiology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Tianlun Yang
- Department of Cardiology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Xiangwei Xiao
- Department of Surgery, Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Mahaman YAR, Huang F, Kessete Afewerky H, Maibouge TMS, Ghose B, Wang X. Involvement of calpain in the neuropathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Med Res Rev 2018; 39:608-630. [PMID: 30260518 PMCID: PMC6585958 DOI: 10.1002/med.21534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2018] [Revised: 07/11/2018] [Accepted: 07/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common (60% to 80%) age‐related disease associated with dementia and is characterized by a deterioration of behavioral and cognitive capacities leading to death in few years after diagnosis, mainly due to complications from chronic illness. The characteristic hallmarks of the disease are extracellular senile plaques (SPs) and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) with neuropil threads, which are a direct result of amyloid precursor protein (APP) processing to Aβ, and τ hyperphosphorylation. However, many indirect underlying processes play a role in this event. One of these underlying mechanisms leading to these histological hallmarks is the uncontrolled hyperactivation of a family of cysteine proteases called calpains. Under normal physiological condition calpains participate in many processes of cells’ life and their activation is tightly controlled. However, with an increase in age, increased oxidative stress and other excitotoxicity assaults, this regulatory system becomes impaired and result in increased activation of these proteases involving them in the pathogenesis of various diseases including neurodegeneration like AD. Reviewed here is a pool of data on the implication of calpains in the pathogenesis of AD, the underlying molecular mechanism, and the potential of targeting these enzymes for AD therapeutics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yacoubou Abdoul Razak Mahaman
- Department of Pathophysiology, Key Laboratory of Education Ministry of China for Neurological Disorders, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Fang Huang
- Department of Pathophysiology, Key Laboratory of Education Ministry of China for Neurological Disorders, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Henok Kessete Afewerky
- Department of Pathophysiology, Key Laboratory of Education Ministry of China for Neurological Disorders, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Tanko Mahamane Salissou Maibouge
- Department of Pathophysiology, Key Laboratory of Education Ministry of China for Neurological Disorders, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Bishwajit Ghose
- Department of Social Medicine and Health Management, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Xiaochuan Wang
- Department of Pathophysiology, Key Laboratory of Education Ministry of China for Neurological Disorders, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Division of Neurodegenerative Disorders, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, China
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Gan-Or Z, Rouleau GA. Calpain 1 in neurodegeneration: a therapeutic target? Lancet Neurol 2018; 15:1118. [PMID: 27647640 DOI: 10.1016/s1474-4422(16)30175-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Accepted: 07/20/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ziv Gan-Or
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital, Department of Human Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 2B4, Canada.
| | - Guy A Rouleau
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital, Department of Human Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 2B4, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Lowry JR, Klegeris A. Emerging roles of microglial cathepsins in neurodegenerative disease. Brain Res Bull 2018; 139:144-156. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2018.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2017] [Revised: 01/23/2018] [Accepted: 02/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
|
18
|
Li J, Yang S, Zhu G. Postnatal calpain inhibition elicits cerebellar cell death and motor dysfunction. Oncotarget 2017; 8:87997-88007. [PMID: 29152136 PMCID: PMC5675688 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.21324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2017] [Accepted: 08/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Calpain-1 deletion elicits neurodevelopmental disorders, such as ataxia. However, the function of calpain in postnatal neurodevelopment and its mechanisms remain unknown. In this study, we revealed that postnatal intraperitoneal injection of various calpain inhibitors attenuated cerebellar cytosolic calpain activity. Moreover, postnatal application of calpeptin (2 mg/kg) apparently reduced spectrin breakdown, promoted suprachiasmatic nucleus circadian oscillatory protein (SCOP) accumulation in cerebellar tissue. In addition, application of calpeptin decreased phosphorylated protein kinase B (p-AKT) level (p<0.05), as well as total AKT level (p<0.05). We also evidenced that administration of calpeptin obviously increased phosphorylation of mammalian target of rapamycin (p-mTor) (p<0.01). Apoptosis of granular cells and activation of caspase-3 (p<0.01) were facilitated after calpain inhibition. Importantly, cell numbers of granular cells were reduced and motor function was remarkably impaired in 4-month-old rats receiving postnatal calpain inhibition. Taken together, our data implicated that calpain activity in the postnatal period was critical for the cerebellar development. Postnatal calpain inhibition causes cerebellar granular cell apoptosis and motor dysfunction, likely through SCOP/AKT and p-mTor signaling pathways.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Junyao Li
- Key Laboratory of Xin'an Medicine, Ministry of Education, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, 230038, China
| | - Sanjuan Yang
- Key Laboratory of Xin'an Medicine, Ministry of Education, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, 230038, China
| | - Guoqi Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Xin'an Medicine, Ministry of Education, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, 230038, China
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Bi MJ, Sun XN, Zou Y, Ding XY, Liu B, Zhang YH, Guo DD, Li Q. N-Butylphthalide Improves Cognitive Function in Rats after Carbon Monoxide Poisoning. Front Pharmacol 2017; 8:64. [PMID: 28232802 PMCID: PMC5298996 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2017.00064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2016] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive impairment is the most common neurologic sequelae after carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning, and the previous investigations have demonstrated that N-Butylphthalide (NBP) could exert a broad spectrum of neuroprotective properties. The current study aimed to investigate the effect of NBP on cognitive dysfunction in rats after acute severe CO poisoning. Rats were randomly divided into a normal control group, a CO poisoning group and a CO+NBP group. The animal model of CO poisoning was established by exposure to CO in a chamber, and then all rats received hyperbaric oxygen therapy once daily, while rats in CO+NBP group were administered orally NBP (6 mg/ 100g) by gavage twice a day additionally. The results indicated that CO poisoning could induce cognitive impairment. The ultrastructure of hippocampus was seriously damaged under transmission electron microscopy, and the expressions of calpain 1 and CaMK II proteins were significantly elevated after CO exposure according to the analysis of immunofluorescence staining and western blot. NBP treatment could evidently improve cognitive function, and maintain ultrastructure integrity of hippocampus. The expression levels of both calpain 1 and CaMK II proteins in CO+NBP group were considerably lower than that of CO poisoning group (P < 0.05). Taken together, this study highlights the molecular mechanism of cognitive dysfunction in rats after CO exposure via the upregulation of both calpain 1 and CaMK II proteins. The administration of NBP could balance the expressions of calpain 1 and CaMK II proteins and improve cognitive function through maintaining ultrastructural integrity of hippocampus, and thus may play a neuroprotective role in brain tissue in rats with CO poisoning.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Jun Bi
- Department of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine, The Affiliated Yantai Yuhuangding Hospital of Qingdao UniversityYantai, China; Emergency Centre, The Affiliated Yantai Yuhuangding Hospital of Qingdao UniversityYantai, China
| | - Xian-Ni Sun
- Emergency Centre, The Affiliated Yantai Yuhuangding Hospital of Qingdao University Yantai, China
| | - Yong Zou
- Department of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine, The Affiliated Yantai Yuhuangding Hospital of Qingdao University Yantai, China
| | - Xiao-Yu Ding
- Department of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine, The Affiliated Yantai Yuhuangding Hospital of Qingdao UniversityYantai, China; Department of Integration of Chinese and Western Clinical Medicine, Qingdao University Medical CollegeQingdao, China
| | - Bin Liu
- The Second Clinical Medical College, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine Jinan, China
| | - Yue-Heng Zhang
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Binzhou Medical University Yantai, China
| | - Da-Dong Guo
- Eye Institute, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine Jinan, China
| | - Qin Li
- Department of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine, The Affiliated Yantai Yuhuangding Hospital of Qingdao University Yantai, China
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Time-dependent reversal of synaptic plasticity induced by physiological concentrations of oligomeric Aβ42: an early index of Alzheimer's disease. Sci Rep 2016; 6:32553. [PMID: 27581852 PMCID: PMC5007504 DOI: 10.1038/srep32553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The oligomeric amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide is thought to contribute to the subtle amnesic changes in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) by causing synaptic dysfunction. Here, we examined the time course of synaptic changes in mouse hippocampal neurons following exposure to Aβ42 at picomolar concentrations, mimicking its physiological levels in the brain. We found opposite effects of the peptide with short exposures in the range of minutes enhancing synaptic plasticity, and longer exposures lasting several hours reducing it. The plasticity reduction was concomitant with an increase in the basal frequency of spontaneous neurotransmitter release, a higher basal number of functional presynaptic release sites, and a redistribution of synaptic proteins including the vesicle-associated proteins synapsin I, synaptophysin, and the post-synaptic glutamate receptor I. These synaptic alterations were mediated by cytoskeletal changes involving actin polymerization and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase. These in vitro findings were confirmed in vivo with short hippocampal infusions of picomolar Aβ enhancing contextual memory and prolonged infusions impairing it. Our findings provide a model for initiation of synaptic dysfunction whereby exposure to physiologic levels of Aβ for a prolonged period of time causes microstructural changes at the synapse which result in increased transmitter release, failure of synaptic plasticity, and memory loss.
Collapse
|
21
|
Potz BA, Abid MR, Sellke FW. Role of Calpain in Pathogenesis of Human Disease Processes. JOURNAL OF NATURE AND SCIENCE 2016; 2:e218. [PMID: 27747292 PMCID: PMC5065022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Calpains are a 15-member class of calcium activated nonlysosomal neutral proteases which are involved in a broad range of cellular function. Calpains are usually localized to the cytosol and within mitochondria. Calpastatin is an endogenous protein that specifically binds to and inhibits calpain. Overactivation of calpain has been implicated in a number of disease processes of the brain, eyes, heart, lungs, pancreas, kidneys, vascular system and skeletal muscle. Therefore, calpain may serve as a potential therapeutic target for a wide variety of disease processes. This review briefly outlines the current literature regarding the involvement of calpain overactivation in the pathogenesis of almost every organ in the body.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Frank W. Sellke
- Corresponding Author. Frank W Sellke, M.D., Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Cardiovascular Research Center Warren Alpert Medical School Brown University, 2 Dudley Street MOC 360, Providence, RI 02905, USA.
| |
Collapse
|