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Juncker HG, Naninck EFG, van Keulen BJ, Harinck JE, Schipper L, Lucassen PJ, van Goudoever JB, de Rooij SR, Korosi A. Maternal stress is associated with higher protein-bound amino acid concentrations in human milk. Front Nutr 2023; 10:1165764. [PMID: 37743929 PMCID: PMC10513938 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2023.1165764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Maternal stress in the postpartum period affects not only the mother but also her newborn child, who is at increased risk of developing metabolic and mental disorders later in life. The mechanisms by which stress is transmitted to the infant are not yet fully understood. Human milk (HM) is a potential candidate as maternal stress affects various components of HM, e.g., fat and immunoglobulin concentrations. To date, it is unknown whether maternal stress also affects the amino acids (AAs) in HM, even though this nutrient is of extreme importance to child health and development. This study aimed to investigate whether and how maternal stress is associated with the AA composition of HM. Methods In this observational cohort study (Amsterdam, The Netherlands), lactating women were recruited in two study groups: a high-stress (HS) group; women whose child was hospitalized (n = 24), and a control (CTL) group; women who gave birth to a healthy child (n = 73). HM was collected three times a day, on postpartum days 10, 17, and 24. Perceived psychological stress was measured using validated questionnaires, while biological stress measures were based on hair, saliva, and HM cortisol concentrations. HM protein-bound and free AAs were analyzed by liquid chromatography and compared between groups. Results Maternal perceived stress scores were higher in the HS group (p < 0.01). The concentrations of protein-bound AAs in HM were higher in the HS group compared to the CTL group (p = 0.028) and were positively associated with HM cortisol concentrations (p = 0.024). The concentrations of free AAs did not differ between study groups and were unrelated to cortisol concentrations. Conclusion Findings from this prospective cohort study suggest that maternal stress in the postpartum period is associated with an altered human milk amino acid composition, which could play a role in the transmission of maternal stress effects to her child. The physiological implications of these stress-induced changes for infant development await future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah G. Juncker
- Brain Plasticity Group, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Amsterdam Reproduction and Development, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Eva F. G. Naninck
- Brain Plasticity Group, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Britt J. van Keulen
- Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Amsterdam Reproduction and Development, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Jolinda E. Harinck
- Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | | | - Paul J. Lucassen
- Brain Plasticity Group, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Johannes B. van Goudoever
- Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Amsterdam Reproduction and Development, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Susanne R. de Rooij
- Amsterdam Reproduction and Development, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Department of Epidemiology and Data Science, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Aging and Later Life, Health Behaviors and Chronic Diseases, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Aniko Korosi
- Brain Plasticity Group, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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Juncker HG, Naninck EFG, Schipper L, Lucassen PJ, van Goudoever JB, de Rooij SR, Korosi A. Maternal stress in the postpartum period is associated with altered human milk fatty acid composition. Clin Nutr 2022; 41:2517-2528. [PMID: 36223713 DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2022.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Maternal stress in the postpartum period affects not only the mother, but also her newborn child who is at increased risk for a wide range of disorders later in life. The mechanisms underlying transmission of maternal stress to the child remain elusive. Human milk (HM) is a potential candidate and is an important source of fatty acid (FA), which are crucial for child (neuro)development. This study aims to investigate whether maternal psychological and biological stress influences HM FA composition over the first month postpartum. METHODS The Amsterdam Mother's Milk study is a prospective cohort study. We included lactating women who delivered at term with a large range of stress levels: a high stress (HS) group, women whose child was hospitalized for a minimum of 2 days (n=23) and a control (CTL) group, women who gave birth to a healthy child (n=73). HM was collected three times a day at postpartum days 10, 17 and 24. Perceived psychological stress was measured using multiple validated questionnaires, while biological stress measures were based on cortisol in hair, saliva and HM. HM FAs were analyzed by gas-chromatography and compared between groups. RESULTS Maternal perceived stress scores were significantly higher in the HS group (p < 0.01), whereas cortisol measurements did not differ between groups. The absolute concentrations of total FA in HM (p=0.023), including the total amount of poly unsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) (p=0.022) and omega-6 PUFAs (p=0.018), were lower in the HS group compared to the CTL group. Relative values of FAs did not differ between groups. CONCLUSION Maternal stress in the first month postpartum was associated with overall lower levels of FA in HM. This possibly indicates a route of transmission of maternal stress signals to the infant. Future research should investigate if these stress-induced changes in HM FAs have consequences for child development.
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Affiliation(s)
- H G Juncker
- Brain Plasticity Group, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam Reproduction and Development Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - E F G Naninck
- Brain Plasticity Group, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam Reproduction and Development Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - L Schipper
- Danone Nutricia Research, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - P J Lucassen
- Brain Plasticity Group, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - J B van Goudoever
- Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam Reproduction and Development Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - S R de Rooij
- Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Department of Epidemiology and Data Science, Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - A Korosi
- Brain Plasticity Group, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
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Alexander AC, Waring JJ, Olurotimi O, Kurien J, Noble B, Businelle MS, Ra CK, Ehlke SJ, Boozary LK, Cohn AM, Kendzor DE. The relations between discrimination, stressful life events, and substance use among adults experiencing homelessness. Stress Health 2022; 38:79-89. [PMID: 34137166 PMCID: PMC9629914 DOI: 10.1002/smi.3073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Revised: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The current study investigated whether stressful life events and everyday discrimination experiences were associated with using one or more substances in the past 30-days and substance use disorder (SUD) among adults experiencing homelessness. We obtained survey data from adults (N = 501) seeking services at a day shelter. Participants self-reported whether they used cigarettes, other tobacco products, cannabis, alcohol, opioids, amphetamine, and cocaine/crack in the past 30-days, and the total number of substances used were also calculated. We measured stressful life events and everyday discrimination using validated scales. We used multivariable logistic and negative binomial regression analyses to evaluate hypothesised associations. Results indicated that reporting a higher number of stressful life events was associated with past 30-days cannabis, tobacco, alcohol, and other substance use, screening positive for a SUD, and using a greater number of substances in the past 30 days. After accounting for stressful life events, everyday discrimination was associated with only past 30-days cannabis use. Overall, we found that reporting stressful life events was related to current substance use and screening positive for a SUD. Findings suggest that life stressors, and discrimination to a lesser extent, were associated with substance use and SUD among adults experiencing homelessness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam C. Alexander
- TSET Health Promotion Research Center, Stephenson Cancer Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States.,Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
| | - Joseph J.C. Waring
- TSET Health Promotion Research Center, Stephenson Cancer Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States
| | - Oluwakemi Olurotimi
- TSET Health Promotion Research Center, Stephenson Cancer Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States
| | - Jasmin Kurien
- TSET Health Promotion Research Center, Stephenson Cancer Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States
| | - Bishop Noble
- TSET Health Promotion Research Center, Stephenson Cancer Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States
| | - Michael S. Businelle
- TSET Health Promotion Research Center, Stephenson Cancer Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States.,Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
| | - Chaelin K. Ra
- TSET Health Promotion Research Center, Stephenson Cancer Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States
| | - Sarah J. Ehlke
- TSET Health Promotion Research Center, Stephenson Cancer Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States
| | - Laili K. Boozary
- TSET Health Promotion Research Center, Stephenson Cancer Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States.,Department of Psychology, Cellular and Behavioral Neurobiology, The University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK
| | - Amy M. Cohn
- TSET Health Promotion Research Center, Stephenson Cancer Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States.,Department of Pediatrics, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
| | - Darla E. Kendzor
- TSET Health Promotion Research Center, Stephenson Cancer Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States.,Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
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Marshall JJ, Sörman K, Durbeej N, Thompson L, Lundström S, Minnis H, Hellner C, Gillberg C. Interpersonal trauma and its relation to childhood psychopathic traits: what does ADHD and ODD add to the equation? BMC Psychiatry 2021; 21:630. [PMID: 34922499 PMCID: PMC8684186 DOI: 10.1186/s12888-021-03610-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Childhood trauma has demonstrated associations with callous-unemotional traits (e.g., reflecting lack of remorse and guilt, unconcern about own performance). Less is known about associations between trauma and multiple domains of child psychopathic traits. There has also been limited focus on the role of co-occurring disorders to psychopathy traits among children, namely, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and how they interact with childhood trauma. METHODS We examined to what degree childhood interpersonal trauma can predict parent-rated psychopathic traits in a large population based Swedish twin sample (N = 5057), using a stringent definition of interpersonal trauma occurring before age 10. Two hundred and fifty-one participants met the interpersonal trauma criteria for analysis. The study explored the additional impact of traits of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). RESULTS Linear regressions demonstrated statistically significant but clinically negligible effects of interpersonal trauma on total and subscale scores of parent-rated psychopathic traits. When exploring interaction effects of ADHD and ODD into the model, the effect increased. There were interaction effects between ODD and trauma in relation to psychopathic traits, suggesting a moderating role of ODD. Having been exposed to trauma before age 10 was significantly associated with higher parent rated psychopathy traits as measured by The Child Problematic Traits Inventory-Short Version (CPTI-SV), however the explained variance was small (0.3-0.9%). CONCLUSIONS The results challenge the notion of association between interpersonal trauma and youth psychopathic traits. They also highlight the need to gain an improved understanding of overlap between psychopathic traits, ADHD and ODD for clinical screening purposes and the underlying developmental mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- John J. Marshall
- Institute of Health and WellbeingUniversity of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Karolina Sörman
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Natalie Durbeej
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Public Health and Caring Sciences, Uppsala University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - L. Thompson
- Institute of Health and WellbeingUniversity of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
- Gillberg Neuropsychiatry Centre, Sahlgrenska Academy, Gothenburg University, Glasgow, UK
| | - Sebastian Lundström
- Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Gillberg Neuropsychiatry Centre, Centre of Ethics Law and Mental Health, Gothenburg University, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Helen Minnis
- Institute of Health and WellbeingUniversity of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Clara Hellner
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Christopher Gillberg
- Institute of Health and WellbeingUniversity of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
- Gillberg Neuropsychiatry Centre, Sahlgrenska Academy, Gothenburg University, Glasgow, UK
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Bednarikova H, Kascakova N, Furstova J, Zelinkova Z, Falt P, Hasto J, Tavel P. Life Stressors in Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Comparison with a Population-Based Healthy Control Group in the Czech Republic. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18063237. [PMID: 33800985 PMCID: PMC8003904 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18063237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2021] [Revised: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Background: Stress has been suggested to play a potential role in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) pathogenesis, but studies focussing on the occurrence of specific life stress events among IBD patients are scarce. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to explore the association between various life stress events and IBD. Methods: Patients with IBD (N = 98, mean age: 38.45, 54.1% men) were compared to a group of healthy controls (N = 405, mean age: 36.45, 58.0% men) originating from a health survey conducted on a representative population sample of Czech adults. The Life Stressor Checklist-Revised (LSC-R) was used to assess the stressors. Results: IBD patients had higher odds of reporting life stressors overall (p < 0.001), life stressors before the age of 16 (p < 0.004) and a higher score in traumatic stress (p < 0.005) and interpersonal violence (p < 0.001) when compared to the control group. Gender- and diagnosis-related differences are discussed. Conclusion: Reporting life stressors experienced during childhood or adulthood is strongly associated with IBD. This should be considered in illness management, especially in a severe course of IBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hana Bednarikova
- Olomouc University Social Health Institute, Palacky University, Univerzitni 22, 779 00 Olomouc, Czech Republic; (N.K.); (J.F.); (Z.Z.); (J.H.); (P.T.)
- Department of Gastroenterology and Digestive Endoscopy, University Hospital—St. Michael’s Hospital, Satinskeho 1, 811 08 Bratislava, Slovakia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +421-903956665
| | - Natalia Kascakova
- Olomouc University Social Health Institute, Palacky University, Univerzitni 22, 779 00 Olomouc, Czech Republic; (N.K.); (J.F.); (Z.Z.); (J.H.); (P.T.)
- 2nd Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital Olomouc, I.P. Pavlova 185/6, 779 00 Olomouc, Czech Republic;
| | - Jana Furstova
- Olomouc University Social Health Institute, Palacky University, Univerzitni 22, 779 00 Olomouc, Czech Republic; (N.K.); (J.F.); (Z.Z.); (J.H.); (P.T.)
| | - Zuzana Zelinkova
- Olomouc University Social Health Institute, Palacky University, Univerzitni 22, 779 00 Olomouc, Czech Republic; (N.K.); (J.F.); (Z.Z.); (J.H.); (P.T.)
- Department of Gastroenterology and Digestive Endoscopy, University Hospital—St. Michael’s Hospital, Satinskeho 1, 811 08 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Premysl Falt
- 2nd Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital Olomouc, I.P. Pavlova 185/6, 779 00 Olomouc, Czech Republic;
- Faculty of Medicine, Palacky University, Krizkovskeho 511/8, 779 00 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Jozef Hasto
- Olomouc University Social Health Institute, Palacky University, Univerzitni 22, 779 00 Olomouc, Czech Republic; (N.K.); (J.F.); (Z.Z.); (J.H.); (P.T.)
- Psychiatric-Psychotherapeutic Outpatient Clinic, Pro Mente Sana, Heydukova 27, 811 06 Bratislava, Slovakia
- Department of Social Work, St. Elizabeth College of Health and Social Work, Namestie 1. maja 1, 810 00 Bratislava, Slovakia
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, Slovak Medical University in Bratislava, Limbova 12, 833 03 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Peter Tavel
- Olomouc University Social Health Institute, Palacky University, Univerzitni 22, 779 00 Olomouc, Czech Republic; (N.K.); (J.F.); (Z.Z.); (J.H.); (P.T.)
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Penz M, Kirschbaum C, Buske-Kirschbaum A, Wekenborg MK, Miller R. Stressful life events predict one-year change of leukocyte composition in peripheral blood. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2018; 94:17-24. [PMID: 29751249 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2018] [Revised: 04/25/2018] [Accepted: 05/03/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
A plethora of cross-sectional studies suggest that psychological stress resulting from experiencing stressful life events (SLE) can result in an altered immune response. Potential maladaptive immune changes may outlast the event and affect the organism long after stress cessation. As a consequence, an increased vulnerability for immune-mediated pathologies (e.g. arthritis, diabetes) may develop over the life span. The objective of the present study was to monitor the longitudinal kinetics of peripheral white blood cells (WBCs; neutrophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes) in response to SLE. Here we present blood, hair, and behavioural measures obtained in the Dresden Burnout Study, at first visit (T1; N = 446) and one year later (T2; N = 173). Cumulative impact of SLE was assessed at T1 with the Life Stressor Checklist (LSC-R). Results indicate a significant increase in neutrophils (+2.8% per each 10 LSC-R points) between T1 and T2 in association with reported SLE. The change in neutrophils tended to correlate with the change in hair cortisol (Coheńs f = 0.6). We propose that SLE trigger immunological alterations that persist across time and thereby promote a continuous effect on WBC distribution. Such an effect might advance subclinical inflammatory processes, reduce an individualś immune defence, and promote a link between psychological stress and physical disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlene Penz
- Faculty of Psychology, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany.
| | | | | | | | - Robert Miller
- Faculty of Psychology, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
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Shaik SA, Almarzuqi A, Almogheer R, Alharbi O, Jalal A, Alorainy M. Assessing Saudi medical students learning approach using the revised two-factor study process questionnaire. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MEDICAL EDUCATION 2017; 8:292-296. [PMID: 28829331 PMCID: PMC5572421 DOI: 10.5116/ijme.5974.7a06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2017] [Accepted: 07/23/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To assess learning approaches of 1st, 2nd, and 3rd-year medical students by using revised two-factor study process questionnaire, and to assess reliability and validity of the questionnaire. METHODS This cross-sectional study was conducted at the College of Medicine, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia in 2014. The revised two-factor study process questionnaire (R-SPQ-2F) was completed by 610 medical students of both genders, from foundation (first year), central nervous system (second year), medicine and surgery (third year) courses. The study process was evaluated by computing mean scores of two research study approaches (deep & surface) using student's t-test and one-way analysis of variance. The internal consistency and construct validity of the questionnaire were assessed using Cronbach's α and factor analysis. RESULTS The mean score of deep approach was significantly higher than the surface approach among participants(t(770)=7.83, p= 0.000) for the four courses. The mean scores of deep approach were significantly higher among participants with higher grade point average (F(2,768)=13.31, p=0.001) along with more number of study hours by participants (F(2,768)=20.08, p=0.001). The Cronbach's α-values of items at 0.70 indicate the good internal consistency of questionnaire used. Factor analysis confirms two factors (deep and surface approaches) of R-SPQ-2F. CONCLUSIONS The deep approach to learning was the primary approach among 1st, 2nd and 3rd-year King Saud University medical students. This study confirms reliability and validity of the revised two-factor study process questionnaire. Medical educators could use the results of such studies to make required changes in the curriculum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaffi Ahamed Shaik
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahmed Almarzuqi
- College of Medicine, King Saudi University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Rakan Almogheer
- College of Medicine, King Saudi University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Omar Alharbi
- College of Medicine, King Saudi University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdulaziz Jalal
- College of Medicine, King Saudi University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Majed Alorainy
- College of Medicine, King Saudi University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
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