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Okotto-Okotto J, Yu W, Kwoba E, Thumbi SM, Okotto LG, Wanza P, Trajano Gomes da Silva D, Wright J. A mixed methods study to evaluate participatory mapping for rural water safety planning in western Kenya. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0255286. [PMID: 34320036 PMCID: PMC8318241 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0255286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Water safety planning is an approach to ensure safe drinking-water access through comprehensive risk assessment and water supply management from catchment to consumer. However, its uptake remains low in rural areas. Participatory mapping, the process of map creation for resource management by local communities, has yet to be used for rural water safety planning. In this mixed methods study, to evaluate the validity of participatory mapping outputs for rural water safety planning and assess community understanding of water safety, 140 community members in Siaya County, Kenya, attended ten village-level participatory mapping sessions. They mapped drinking-water sources, ranked their safety and mapped potential contamination hazards. Findings were triangulated against a questionnaire survey of 234 households, conducted in parallel. In contrast to source type ranking for international monitoring, workshop participants ranked rainwater's safety above piped water and identified source types such as broken pipes not explicitly recorded in water source typologies often used for formal monitoring. Participatory mapping also highlighted the overlap between livestock grazing areas and household water sources. These findings were corroborated by the household survey and subsequent participatory meetings. However, comparison with household survey data suggested participatory mapping outputs omitted some water sources and landscape-scale contamination hazards, such as open defecation areas or flood-prone areas. In follow-up visits, participant groups ranked remediation of rainwater harvesting systems as the most acceptable intervention to address hazards. We conclude that participatory mapping can complement other established approaches to rural water safety planning by capturing informally managed source use and facilitating community engagement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Okotto-Okotto
- Victoria Institute for Research on Environment and Development (VIRED) International, Rabuor, Kisumu, Kenya
| | - Weiyu Yu
- School of Geography and Environmental Science, University of Southampton, Highfield, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Emmah Kwoba
- Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kisumu, Kenya
| | - Samuel M. Thumbi
- Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kisumu, Kenya
- Paul G Allen School for Global Animal Health, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States of America
- Institute of Tropical and Infectious Diseases, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Lorna Grace Okotto
- School of Spatial Planning and Natural Resource Management, Jaramogi Oginga Odinga University of Science and Technology, Bondo, Kenya
| | - Peggy Wanza
- Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kisumu, Kenya
| | | | - Jim Wright
- School of Geography and Environmental Science, University of Southampton, Highfield, Southampton, United Kingdom
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Tsitsifli S, Tsoukalas DS. Water Safety Plans and HACCP implementation in water utilities around the world: benefits, drawbacks and critical success factors. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:18837-18849. [PMID: 31863372 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-019-07312-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Drinking water is of paramount importance for people's health. Many outbreaks due to poor water quality are being recorded even nowadays. Although the institutional framework exists at global (e.g., WHO guidelines) and national level, there are still many factors contributing to water contamination. Risk assessment tools, such as HACCP and Water Safety Plans, are being elaborated all over the world to act proactively referring to drinking water quality. The present paper aims at reviewing the implementation status of risk assessment tools around the world and presenting the benefits and the difficulties recorded during the implementation process. The benefits include improved water quality, improved operational efficiency, reduced consumers' complaints, reduced production cost, and reduced potential hazardous incidents. Studying the difficulties, the identification of critical success factors for the implementation of such tools is feasible. Some of the critical success factors include the financial and human resources, staff training, effective identification of critical control points, correct estimation of the occurrence and the severity of the hazards, effective coordination, and efficient monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stavroula Tsitsifli
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Thessaly, GR-38334, Volos, Greece.
- School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, GR-26335, Patras, Greece.
| | - Dionysios S Tsoukalas
- School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, GR-26335, Patras, Greece
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Hasan H, Parker A, Pollard SJT. Whither regulation, risk and water safety plans? Case studies from Malaysia and from England and Wales. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 755:142868. [PMID: 33348485 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2020] [Revised: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/03/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
We explore the interplay between preventative risk management and regulatory style for the implementation of water safety plans in Malaysia and in England and Wales, two jurisdictions with distinct philosophies of approach. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 32 water safety professionals in Malaysia, 23 in England and Wales, supported by 6 Focus Group Discussions (n = 53 participants). A grounded theory approach produced insights on the transition from drinking water quality surveillance to preventative risk management. Themes familiar to this type of regulatory transition emerged, including concerns about compliance policy; overseeing the risk management controls of regulatees with varied competencies and funds available to drive change; and the portfolio of interventions suited to a more facilitative regulatory style. Because the potential harm from waterborne illness is high where pathogen exposures occur, the transition to risk-informed regulation demands mature organisational cultures among water utilities and regulators, and a laser-like focus on ensuring risk management controls are delivered within water supply systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hafizah Hasan
- Cranfield University, Cranfield Water Science Institute, School of Water, Energy and Environment, College Road, Cranfield, Bedfordshire, MK43 0AL, United Kingdom; Ministry of Health Malaysia, Engineering Services Division, Federal Government Administrative Centre, 62590 Putrajaya, Malaysia
| | - Alison Parker
- Cranfield University, Cranfield Water Science Institute, School of Water, Energy and Environment, College Road, Cranfield, Bedfordshire, MK43 0AL, United Kingdom
| | - Simon J T Pollard
- Cranfield University, Cranfield Water Science Institute, School of Water, Energy and Environment, College Road, Cranfield, Bedfordshire, MK43 0AL, United Kingdom.
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Reducing Groundwater Contamination from On-Site Sanitation in Peri-Urban Sub-Saharan Africa: Reviewing Transition Management Attributes towards Implementation of Water Safety Plans. SUSTAINABILITY 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/su12104210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
High urbanization in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has resulted in increased peri-urban groundwater contamination by on-site sanitation. The World Health Organization introduced Water Safety Plans (WSP) towards the elimination of contamination risks to water supply systems; however, their application to peri-urban groundwater sources has been limited. Focusing on Uganda, Ghana, and Tanzania, this paper reviews limitations of the existing water regime in addressing peri-urban groundwater contamination through WSPs and normative attributes of Transition Management (TM) towards a sustainable solution. Microbial and nutrient contamination remain prevalent hazards in peri-urban SSA, arising from on-site sanitation within a water regime following Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) principles. Limitations to implementation of WSPs for peri-urban groundwater protection include policy diversity, with low focus on groundwater; institutional incoherence; highly techno-centric management tools; and limited regard for socio-cultural and urban-poor aspects. In contrast, TM postulates a prescriptive approach promoted by community-led frontrunners, with flexible and multi-domain actors, experimenting through socio-technical tools towards a shared vision. Thus, a unified risk-based management framework, harnessing attributes of TM and IWRM, is proposed towards improved WSP implementation. The framework could assist peri-urban communities and policymakers in formulating sustainable strategies to reduce groundwater contamination, thereby contributing to improved access to safe water.
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Li H, Smith CD, Cohen A, Wang L, Li Z, Zhang X, Zhong G, Zhang R. Implementation of water safety plans in China: 2004–2018. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2020; 223:106-115. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2019.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2019] [Revised: 10/03/2019] [Accepted: 10/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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van den Berg H, Rickert B, Ibrahim S, Bekure K, Gichile H, Girma S, Azezew A, Belayneh TZ, Tadesse S, Teferi Z, Abera F, Girma S, Legesse T, Truneh D, Lynch G, Janse I, de Roda Husman AM. Linking water quality monitoring and climate-resilient water safety planning in two urban drinking water utilities in Ethiopia. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2019; 17:989-1001. [PMID: 31850905 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2019.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Unsafe drinking water is a recognized health threat in Ethiopia, and climate change, rapid population growth, urbanization and agricultural practices put intense pressure on availability and quality of water. Climate change-related health problems due to floods and waterborne diseases are increasing. With increasing insight into impacts of climate change and urbanization on water availability and quality and of required adaptations, a shift towards climate-resilient water safety planning was introduced into an Ethiopian strategy and guidance document to guarantee safe drinking water. Climate-resilient water safety planning was implemented in the urban water supplies of Addis Ababa and Adama, providing drinking water to 5 million and 500,000 people, respectively. Based on the risks identified with climate-resilient water safety planning, water quality monitoring can be optimized by prioritizing parameters and events which pose a higher risk for contaminating the drinking water. Water quality monitoring was improved at both drinking water utilities and at the Public Health Institute to provide relevant data used as input for climate-resilient water safety planning. By continuously linking water quality monitoring and climate-resilient water safety planning, utilization of information was optimized, and both approaches benefit from linking these activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harold van den Berg
- National Institute for Public Health and The Environment (RIVM), WHO Collaborating Centre for Risk Assessment of Pathogens in Food and Water, P.O. Box 1, 3721 MA Bilthoven, The Netherlands E-mail:
| | - Bettina Rickert
- German Environment Agency (UBA), WHO Collaborating Centre for Research on Drinking Water Hygiene, Schichauweg 58, 12307 Berlin, Germany
| | - Seada Ibrahim
- Adama Water Supply and Sewerage Enterprise, Geda Kebele, Kebele 12, Adama, Ethiopia
| | - Kasa Bekure
- Adama Water Supply and Sewerage Enterprise, Geda Kebele, Kebele 12, Adama, Ethiopia
| | - Hailu Gichile
- Adama Water Supply and Sewerage Enterprise, Geda Kebele, Kebele 12, Adama, Ethiopia
| | - Seble Girma
- Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority, P.O. Box 1505, 1110 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Altaseb Azezew
- Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority, P.O. Box 1505, 1110 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | | | - Solomon Tadesse
- Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority, P.O. Box 1505, 1110 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Zeleke Teferi
- Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority, P.O. Box 1505, 1110 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Firehiwot Abera
- Ethiopian Public Health Institute, 1242 Patriot Street, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Samson Girma
- Ethiopian Public Health Institute, 1242 Patriot Street, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Tesfaye Legesse
- Ethiopian Public Health Institute, 1242 Patriot Street, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Daniel Truneh
- Vitens Evides International, Reactorweg 47, 3528 AD, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Gretta Lynch
- National Institute for Public Health and The Environment (RIVM), WHO Collaborating Centre for Risk Assessment of Pathogens in Food and Water, P.O. Box 1, 3721 MA Bilthoven, The Netherlands E-mail:
| | - Ingmar Janse
- National Institute for Public Health and The Environment (RIVM), WHO Collaborating Centre for Risk Assessment of Pathogens in Food and Water, P.O. Box 1, 3721 MA Bilthoven, The Netherlands E-mail:
| | - Ana Maria de Roda Husman
- National Institute for Public Health and The Environment (RIVM), WHO Collaborating Centre for Risk Assessment of Pathogens in Food and Water, P.O. Box 1, 3721 MA Bilthoven, The Netherlands E-mail: ; Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, University of Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
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Ferrero G, Setty K, Rickert B, George S, Rinehold A, DeFrance J, Bartram J. Capacity building and training approaches for water safety plans: A comprehensive literature review. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2019; 222:615-627. [PMID: 30744955 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2019.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2018] [Revised: 01/22/2019] [Accepted: 01/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
Abstract
The World Health Organization has recommended Water Safety Plans (WSPs), a holistic risk assessment and risk management approach, for drinking-water suppliers across low-, middle- and high-income countries, since publishing its 2004 Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality. While rapid WSP adoption has occurred, capacity is still catching up to implementation needs. Many countries and regions lack case examples, legal requirements, and training resources for WSPs, corresponding to widespread capacity shortfall in the water supply sector. We undertook a comprehensive review of the literature on capacity building and training for WSPs, with the goal of providing recommendations for multiple stakeholder groups at the scales of individual utilities, national governments, and intermediate units of governance. We propose a WSP training taxonomy and discuss it in relation to the stages of learning (introduction, practice, and reinforcement); describe the importance of customizing training to the target group, local language and circumstances; highlight the relevance of auditing for evaluating change over time; and call for robust methods to monitor WSP capacity development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuliana Ferrero
- IHE Delft Institute for Water Education, Westvest 7, 2611, AX, Delft, the Netherlands.
| | - Karen Setty
- The Water Institute, Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Bettina Rickert
- German Environment Agency, Schichauweg 58, 12307, Berlin, Germany
| | - Shannan George
- The Water Institute, Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Angella Rinehold
- Department of Public Health, Environmental and Social Determinants of Health, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Jennifer DeFrance
- Department of Public Health, Environmental and Social Determinants of Health, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Jamie Bartram
- The Water Institute, Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
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Experiential Learning through Role-Playing: Enhancing Stakeholder Collaboration in Water Safety Plans. WATER 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/w10020227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Bereskie T, Rodriguez MJ, Sadiq R. Drinking Water Management and Governance in Canada: An Innovative Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) Framework for a Safe Drinking Water Supply. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2017; 60:243-262. [PMID: 28424879 DOI: 10.1007/s00267-017-0873-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2017] [Accepted: 04/08/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Drinking water management in Canada is complex, with a decentralized, three-tiered governance structure responsible for safe drinking water throughout the country. The current approach has been described as fragmented, leading to governance gaps, duplication of efforts, and an absence of accountability and enforcement. Although there have been no major waterborne disease outbreaks in Canada since 2001, a lack of performance improvement, especially in small drinking water systems, is evident. The World Health Organization water safety plan approach for drinking water management represents an alternative preventative management framework to the current conventional, reactive drinking water management strategies. This approach has seen successful implementation throughout the world and has the potential to address many of the issues with drinking water management in Canada. This paper presents a review and strengths-weaknesses-opportunities-threats analysis of drinking water management and governance in Canada at the federal, provincial/territorial, and municipal levels. Based on this analysis, a modified water safety plan (defined as the plan-do-check-act (PDCA)-WSP framework) is proposed, established from water safety plan recommendations and the principles of PDCA for continuous performance improvement. This proposed framework is designed to strengthen current drinking water management in Canada and is designed to fit within and incorporate the existing governance structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ty Bereskie
- School of Engineering, University of British Columbia, Kelowna, BC, V1V 1V7, Canada.
| | | | - Rehan Sadiq
- School of Engineering, University of British Columbia, Kelowna, BC, V1V 1V7, Canada
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Amjad UQ, Luh J, Baum R, Bartram J. Water safety plans: bridges and barriers to implementation in North Carolina. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2016; 14:816-826. [PMID: 27740547 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2016.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
First developed by the World Health Organization, and now used in several countries, water safety plans (WSPs) are a multi-step, preventive process for managing drinking water hazards. While the beneficial impacts of WSPs have been documented in diverse countries, how to successfully implement WSPs in the United States remains a challenge. We examine the willingness and ability of water utility leaders to implement WSPs in the US state of North Carolina. Our findings show that water utilities have more of a reactive than preventive organizational culture, that implementation requires prioritization of time and resources, perceived comparative advantage to other hazard management plans, leadership in implementation, and identification of how WSPs can be embedded in existing work practices. Future research could focus on whether WSP implementation provides benefits such as decreases in operational costs, and improved organization of records and communication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urooj Quezon Amjad
- The Water Institute, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 27599-7431, USA E-mail: ; Global Research Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 27599-7431, USA
| | - Jeanne Luh
- The Water Institute, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 27599-7431, USA E-mail:
| | - Rachel Baum
- The Water Institute, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 27599-7431, USA E-mail:
| | - Jamie Bartram
- The Water Institute, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 27599-7431, USA E-mail:
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