Emerging mycotoxin occurrence in chicken feed and eggs from Algeria

Poultry farming has developed into one of Algeria's most productive industrial farming because of the growing demand for sources of protein among Algerian society. Laying hen feed consists mainly of cereals, which can be contaminated with molds and subsequently with their secondary metabolites known as mycotoxins. These later can pose a serious danger to the production and quality of eggs in the commercial layer industry. This work focuses on the detection of emerging mycotoxins, mainly enniatins (ENNs) and beauvericin (BEA), in poultry feed and eggs from different locations in Algeria. Two different QuEChERS-based extractions were established to extract ENNs and BEA from chicken feed and eggs. The determination of mycotoxin occurrence was achieved by a UHPLC-MS/MS method using 0.1% (v/v) formic acid in water and MeOH as mobile phase, an ESI interface operating in positive mode, and a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer operating in MRM for the detection. Matrix-matched calibration curves were carried out for both matrices, obtaining good linearity (R2 > 0.99). The method performance was assessed in terms of extraction recovery (from 87 to 107%), matrix effect (from - 47 to - 86%), precision (RSD < 15%), and limits of quantitation (≤ 1.1 µg/kg for feed and ≤ 0.8 µg/kg for eggs). The analysis of 10 chicken feed samples and 35 egg samples composed of a 10-egg pool each showed that ENN B1 was the most common mycotoxin (i.e., found in 9 feed samples) with contamination levels ranging from 3.6 to 41.5 µg/kg, while BEA was detected only in one feed sample (12 µg/kg). However, eggs were not found to be contaminated with any mycotoxin at the detection limit levels. Our findings indicate that the searched mycotoxins are present in traces in feed and absent in eggs. This can be explained by the application of a mycotoxin binder. However, this does not put a stop on the conduction of additional research and ultimately setting regulations to prevent the occurrence of emerging mycotoxins.

Yeast polysaccharide mitigated oxidative injury in broilers induced by mixed mycotoxins via regulating intestinal mucosal oxidative stress and hepatic metabolic enzymes

This study was aimed to investigate the effects of yeast polysaccharides (YPS) on growth performance, intestinal health, and aflatoxin metabolism in livers of broilers fed diets naturally contaminated with mixed mycotoxins (MYCO). A total of 480 one-day-old Arbor Acre male broilers were randomly allocated into a 2 × 3 factorial arrangement of treatments (8 replicates with 10 birds per replicate) for 6 wk to assess the effects of 3 levels of YPS (0, 1, or 2 g/kg) on the broilers fed diets contaminated with or without MYCO (95 μg/kg aflatoxin B1, 1.5 mg/kg deoxynivalenol, and 490 μg/kg zearalenone). Results showed that mycotoxins contaminated diets led to significant increments in serum malondialdehyde (MDA) and 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) levels, mRNA expressions of TLR4 and 4EBP1 associated with oxidative stress, mRNA expressions of CYP1A1, CYP1A2, CYP2A6, and CYP3A4 associated with hepatic phase Ⅰ metabolizing enzymes, mRNA expressions of p53 associated with hepatic mitochondrial apoptosis, and AFB1 residues in the liver (P < 0.05); meanwhile dietary MYCO decreased the jejunal villus height (VH), villus height/crypt depth (VH/CD), the activity of serum total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), mRNA expressions of jejunal HIF-1α, HMOX, and XDH associated with oxidative stress, mRNA expressions of jejunal CLDN1, ZO1, and ZO2, and mRNA expression of GST associated with hepatic phase Ⅱ metabolizing enzymes of broilers (P < 0.05). Notably, the adverse effects induced by MYCO on broilers were mitigated by supplementation with YPS. Dietary YPS supplementation reduced the concentrations of serum MDA and 8-OHdG, jejunal CD, mRNA expression of jejunal TLR2, and 4EBP1, hepatic CYP1A2, and p53, and the AFB1 residues in the liver (P < 0.05), and elevated the serum T-AOC and SOD, jejunal VH, and VH/CD, and mRNA expression of jejunal XDH, hepatic GST of broilers (P < 0.05). There were significant interactions between MYCO and YPS levels on the growth performance (BW, ADFI, ADG, and F/G) at d 1 to 21, d 22 to 42, and d 1 to 42, serum GSH-Px activity, and mRNA expression of jejunal CLDN2 and hepatic ras of broilers (P < 0.05). In contrast with MYCO group, the addition of YPS increased BW, ADFI, and ADG, the serum GSH-Px activity (14.31%-46.92%), mRNA levels of jejunal CLDN2 (94.39%-103.02%), decreased F/G, and mRNA levels of hepatic ras (57.83%-63.62%) of broilers (P < 0.05). In conclusion, dietary supplements with YPS protected broilers from mixed mycotoxins toxicities meanwhile keeping normal performance of broilers, presumably via reducing intestinal oxidative stress, protecting intestinal structural integrity, and improving hepatic metabolic enzymes to minimize the AFB1 residue in the liver and enhance the performance of broilers.

Effect of Lactobacillus sp. and yeast supplementation on performance and some blood attributes in deoxynivalenol-challenged broiler chickens

An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of different concentrations of probiotic (Lactobacillus sp.) and yeast (Saccharomycese cerevisiae) on performance, organ attributes and blood traits in broiler chickens. A total of 360 one-day-old female broiler chickens (Hubbard)® were allocated to 9 treatments and four replicates (10 birds per replication). The trail was performed in a completely randomized design (3 × 3 factorial arrangement) to examine the interaction effect of three concentrations of Lactobacillus sp. (0, 0.2 and 0.4 g/kg) and yeast (0, 0.75 and 1.5 g/kg) in deoxynivalenol (DON)-contaminated diets. The results showed that consumption of Lactobacillus sp. and yeast in DON-contaminated diets did not have a significant effect on broiler performance except for feed intake during starter period which was enhanced by yeast administration (P < 0.05). Increasing the Lactobacillus sp. content also reduced (P = 0.05) the proportional liver weight. Administration of Lactobacillus sp. to DON diets increased total protein, albumin and globulin concentrations (P < 0.05). Calcium and creatinine were influenced by yeast and Lactobacillus sp., respectively. Yeast (1.5 g/kg) and Lactobacillus sp. (0.2 g/kg) and combination of two additives (1.5 × 0.2) led to lower triglyceride concentration compared to DON group (P < 0.05). The DON diet increased aspartate amino transferase (AST) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) enzymes concentrations; while, inclusion of 0.4 g/kg Lactobacillus sp. to DON diet decreased AST and LDH enzymes concentrations (P < 0.05). In conclusion, administration of Lactobacillus sp. and yeast could not influence the performance of DON-fed birds; but these additives could reduce negative effects of DON on enzyme activities and some blood attributes.

Heat Shock Protein Response to Stress in Poultry: A Review

Compared to other animal species, production has dramatically increased in the poultry sector. However, in intensive production systems, poultry are subjected to stress conditions that may compromise their well-being. Much like other living organisms, poultry respond to various stressors by synthesising a group of evolutionarily conserved polypeptides named heat shock proteins (HSPs) to maintain homeostasis. These proteins, as chaperones, play a pivotal role in protecting animals against stress by re-establishing normal protein conformation and, thus, cellular homeostasis. In the last few decades, many advances have been made in ascertaining the HSP response to thermal and non-thermal stressors in poultry. The present review focuses on what is currently known about the HSP response to thermal and non-thermal stressors in poultry and discusses the factors that modulate its induction and regulatory mechanisms. The development of practical strategies to alleviate the detrimental effects of environmental stresses on poultry will benefit from detailed studies that describe the mechanisms of stress resilience and enhance our understanding of the nature of heat shock signalling proteins and gene expression.

Basal Blood Morphology, Serum Biochemistry, and the Liver and Muscle Structure of Weaned Wistar Rats Prenatally Exposed to Fumonisins

Simple Summary

Cereal, which is the main ingredient of animal feed, is often contaminated with mold, which produces heat-resistant, carcinogenic, and harmful metabolites/toxins called fumonisins. Feed contamination with fumonisins is a worldwide problem; however, the dietary intake of fumonisins is difficult to estimate because their concentrations in many products are unknown. The effects of consuming fumonisin-contaminated feed on animal health are not fully known, and the economic losses that are related to health care or animal husbandry are difficult to calculate as fumonisins are found commonly in foods, including those that are intended for infants or pregnant dams. The involuntary intake of moldy feed leads to a serious health risk with long-term effects. The research on prenatal exposure to fumonisins is limited. Previous studies have shown that prenatal fumonisins exposure causes abnormalities in the bone and enteric nervous system development. Therefore, it is very important to study the effects of prenatal exposure to fumonisins on the general development of offspring at different periods of life, including weaning.

Abstract

Cereals are often contaminated with fumonisins, which are the toxic byproducts of mold. The aim of the study was to determine the effect of maternal exposure to fumonisins on the development and the liver function of the offspring at weaning. Two doses of fumonisins (60 and 90 mg/kg b.w.) were tested. The changes in the basal blood morphology, the biochemical parameters, the absolute and relative weights of the vital organs, and the changes in the cardiac and biceps brachii muscle histology were studied. The liver damage was assessed by evaluating the liver morphology and the common clinical liver panel. Maternal fumonisin intoxication caused a decrease in the body weight at birth and an increase in the heart, liver, kidney, lungs, ovaries, and testes weights. The cytokines and hormones, as well as the red blood cell counts and hemoglobin levels, were elevated in a dose-dependent manner following the exposure to fumonisins. Maternal exposure caused degenerative morphological and structural changes in the liver, as well as inflammation in the striated muscles, such as the heart and biceps brachii, and disproportionate development of the rat offspring in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, FB exposure resulted in the disproportional development of the rat offspring in a dose-dependent manner, which was probably caused by the bodily hormonal dysregulation. Prenatal fumonisin exposure can be a pathological precursor for serious diseases, such as obesity and diabetes, later in life.

Effects of Deoxynivalenol and Fumonisins on Broiler Gut Cytoprotective Capacity

Mycotoxins are a crucial problem for poultry production worldwide. Two of the most frequently found mycotoxins in feedstuffs are deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisins (FUM) which adversely affect gut health and poultry performance. The current knowledge on DON and FUM effects on broiler responses relevant for gut detoxification, antioxidant capacity, and health is still unclear. The aim of this study was to assess a range of selected molecular intestinal biomarkers for their responsiveness to the maximum allowable European Union dietary levels for DON (5 mg/kg) and FUM (20 mg/kg) in broilers. For the experimental purpose, a challenge diet was formulated, and biomarkers relevant for detoxification, antioxidant response, stress, inflammation, and integrity were profiled across the broiler intestine. The results reveal that DON significantly (p < 0.05) induced aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and cytochrome P450 enzyme (CYP) expression mainly at the duodenum. Moreover, DON and FUM had specific significant (p < 0.05) effects on the antioxidant response, stress, inflammation, and integrity depending on the intestinal segment. Consequently, broiler molecular responses to DON and FUM assessed via a powerful palette of biomarkers were shown to be mycotoxin and intestinal site specific. The study findings could be highly relevant for assessing various dietary bioactive components for protection against mycotoxins.

The impact of deoxynivalenol contaminated diet on performance, immune response, intestine morphology and jejunal gene expression in broiler chicken

The aim of this study was to determine the effects of deoxynivalenol (DON) contaminated diet on performance, immune system, gut morphology and jejunal gene expression in broiler chickens. Eighty-one-day old chicks were randomly allotted into two treatments with 4 replicates (10 birds in each replication). Experimental diets were the control diet (maize-soybean meal) and an experimentally contaminated diet with 10 mg/kg DON. The results indicated that DON-challenged birds had decreased (P < 0.05) average feed intake (AFI) during starter period as compared to control group. Also, average daily gain (ADG), AFI and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were not affected (P > 0.05) by inclusion of DON contaminated diet during the whole experimental period. Dietary addition of DON to the basal diet caused Fabricius bursa relative weight reduction, while increased the abdominal fat and serum triglyceride (TG) concentration (P < 0.05). Dietary DON feeding caused an enhancement (P < 0.05) in the blood aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and gamma glutamytransferase (GGT) contents. Moreover, DON decreased the serum total protein (TP) and albumin (ALB) concentrations. Inclusion of DON in diet reduced (P < 0.05) the white blood cell (WBC) count, lymphocyte number and antibody titer against Newcastle disease virus, but increased (P < 0.05) the blood heterophil count. The DON consumption also diminished (P < 0.05) the villus height, villus to crypt ratio, mucosa thickness and villus surface area in the duodenum. Mucin-2 expression was decreased (P < 0.05) by DON consumption, but toll-like receptor-4 (TLR-4) and claudin-5 (CLDN-5) expressions were not affected (P > 0.05) by dietary treatments. In conclusion, although DON could not influence the performance attributes in broiler chickens, it adversely affected the immune response, muc-2 gene expressions in the jejunum and gut morphology, enhanced the liver enzyme indices and lessened the blood protein contents.

Changes in the Intestinal Histomorphometry, the Expression of Intestinal Tight Junction Proteins, and the Bone Structure and Liver of Pre-Laying Hens Following Oral Administration of Fumonisins for 21 Days

Fumonisins (FB) are metabolites found in cereal grains (including maize), crop products, and pelleted feed. There is a dearth of information concerning the effects of FB intoxication on the intestinal histomorphometry, the expression of intestinal tight junction proteins, and the bone structure and liver in pre-laying hens. The current experiment was carried out on hens from the 11th to the 14th week of age. The hens were orally administered an extract containing fumonisin B1 (FB1) and fumonisin B2 (FB2) at doses of 0.0 mg/kg b.w. (body weight), 1.0 mg/kg b.w., 4.0 mg/kg b.w., and 10.9 mg/kg b.w. for 21 days. Following FB intoxication, the epithelial integrity of the duodenum and jejunum was disrupted, and dose-dependent degenerative changes were observed in liver. An increased content of immature collagen was observed in the bone tissue of FB-intoxicated birds, indicating intensified bone turnover. A similar effect was observed with regards to the articular cartilage, where enhanced fibrillogenesis was observed mainly in the group of birds that received the FB extract at a dose of 10.9 mg/kg b.w. In conclusion, FB intoxication resulted in negative structural changes in the bone tissue of the hens, which could result in worsened bone mechanics and an increase in the risk of bone fractures. Fumonisin administration, even at a dose of 1.0 mg/kg b.w., can lead to degradation of the intestinal barrier and predispose hens to intestinal disturbances later in life.

Dose-Effect of Zearalenone on the Localization and Expression of Growth Hormone, Growth Hormone Receptor, and Heat Shock Protein 70 in the Ovaries of Post-weaning Gilts

Zearalenone (ZEA) has an estrogen-like effect, which can injure the reproductive system of animals, causing infertility, and abortion in sows. However, the underlying mechanisms are still not clear. The objective of this study was to assess the effects of ZEA on the localization and expression of growth hormone (GH), growth hormone receptor (GHR), and heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) in the ovaries of post-weaning gilts. Forty healthy post-weaning gilts were randomly provided one of four diets: normal basal diet supplemented with 0 (control), 0.5 (ZEA0.5), 1.0 (ZEA1.0), and 1.5 (ZEA1.5) mg ZEA/kg. Gilts were housed and fed individually for 35 days; the ovaries were collected after euthanasia for antioxidant index, relative mRNA and protein expression, and immunohistochemical analyses of GH, GHR, and Hsp70. The results revealed that the glutathione peroxidase and total superoxide dismutase levels decreased (p < 0.05), whereas the malondialdehyde level increased (p < 0.05) with increasing ZEA content. The localization pattern of GH, GHR, and Hsp70 in ZEA-treated gilts was the same as that in the control; however, the localization of yellow and brown immunoreactive substances of GH, GHR, and Hsp70 was stronger in the ZEA groups than in the control. The relative mRNA and protein expression of GHR and Hsp70 was the highest in the ZEA1.0 group (p < 0.05), whereas that of GH was the highest in the ZEA0.5 group (p < 0.05). The mRNA and protein expression of GH was lower in the ZEA1.5 group than in the control (p < 0.05). Hsp70 results showed adverse responses to increasing ZEA levels in gilt ovaries, suggesting that Hsp70 played an important role in alleviating ZEA-induced oxidative stress.

Effect of Clostridium on proliferating cell nuclear antigen and ghrelin in the small intestine of fattening pigs fed with deoxynivalenol

Grains and feed are severely contaminated by deoxynivalenol (DON) globally, threatening both human and animal health. Research on bio-degradation of DON, in general, is gaining attention. The aim of this research was to estimate the effect of Clostridium sp. WJ06 as a microbiological detoxification of DON based on the expression and distribution of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) as well as ghrelin in the small intestine. A total of 24 fattening pigs were randomly divided into three groups. The control group was fed with a basic diet, the DON group was fed with DON at 5.0 mg/kg in feed, and the DON+C group was provided DON feed with Clostridium sp. WJ06. Several selected blood parameters, the intestinal morphology, and the expression and distribution of PCNA and ghrelin, were evaluated. The results proved that the selected blood parameters were altered, the intestinal villi were damaged, the epithelium was shed, as well as the expression and distribution of PCNA and ghrelin were changed by DON exposure. These toxic effects were prevented by the addition of Clostridium sp. WJ06. In short, the addition of Clostridium sp. WJ06 to the feed may eliminate the toxic effects of DON in fattening pigs. An underlying mechanism is likely modulation of the expression and distribution of PCNA and ghrelin.

Effect of a probiotic (Lactobacillus sp.), yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and mycotoxin detoxifier alone or in combination on performance, immune response and serum biochemical parameters in broilers fed deoxynivalenol-contaminated diets

Context Deoxynivalenol (DON) contamination of feedstuffs causes detrimental effects on animals and poultry. Dietary inclusion of microbial feed additives, such as probiotics and/or yeast, seems to be a useful approach for DON detoxification and reducing the toxin absorption from the gut. Aims This study was conducted to evaluate the synergetic effects of a probiotic (Lactobacillus spp.), yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and mycotoxin detoxifier on performance, serum chemical parameters and immune status of broiler chickens fed a DON-contaminated diet. Methods A total of 200 1-day-old female broilers (Hubbard®) were allocated to five dietary treatments with four replicates each in a completely randomised design. Experimental diets consisted of: (1) control diet (basal diet), (2) DON diet (basal diet contaminated with 10 mg/kg DON), (3) DON diet supplemented with 0.25% mycotoxin detoxifier (Mycofix® Plus), (4) DON diet supplemented with a combination of 0.4 g/kg probiotic and 1.5 g/kg yeast, and (5) DON diet supplemented with a combination of a probiotic, yeast and mycotoxin detoxifier. Key results The results showed that the DON diet significantly increased the feed conversion ratio compared with mycotoxin detoxifier and control diets. Administration of 0.4 g/kg probiotic along with 1.5 g/kg yeast to a DON-contaminated diet caused a significant enhancement of dressing percentage, leg relative weight and aspartate aminotransferase enzyme activity. The DON-contaminated diet reduced total protein, albumin, triglyceride and cholesterol concentrations, but consumption of a probiotic, yeast and mycotoxin detoxifier improved the levels of these parameters. The DON-treated birds showed a reduction in haematocrit, haemoglobin, red blood cells and blood lymphocyte percentage in comparison with control levels. The inclusion of a combination of a probiotic and yeast along with mycotoxin detoxifier diminished the increased heterophil: lymphocyte ratio by DON administration. The antibody titre against Newcastle disease virus vaccine increased by inclusion of a probiotic, yeast and Mycofix. Conclusions In summary, a combination of a probiotic and yeast along with mycotoxin detoxifier can improve the enzyme activity, immunity and haematological attributes, which are useful for DON-contaminated diet detoxification. Implications Dietary supplementation with a probiotic, yeast and mycotoxin detoxifier could be used as an alternative to detoxification DON in broiler chickens.

Zearalenone (ZEN) in Livestock and Poultry: Dose, Toxicokinetics, Toxicity and Estrogenicity

One of the concerns when using grain ingredients in feed formulation for livestock and poultry diets is mycotoxin contamination. Aflatoxin, fumonisin, ochratoxin, trichothecene (deoxynivalenol, T-2 and HT-2) and zearalenone (ZEN) are mycotoxins that have been frequently reported in animal feed. ZEN, which has raised additional concern due to its estrogenic response in animals, is mainly produced by Fusarium graminearum (F. graminearum), F. culmorum, F. cerealis, F. equiseti, F. crookwellense and F. semitectums, and often co-occurs with deoxynivalenol in grains. The commonly elaborated derivatives of ZEN are α-zearalenol, β-zearalenol, zearalanone, α-zearalanol, and β-zearalanol. Other modified and masked forms of ZEN (including the extractable conjugated and non-extractable bound derivatives of ZEN) have also been quantified. In this review, common dose of ZEN in animal feed was summarized. The absorption rate, distribution (“carry-over”), major metabolites, toxicity and estrogenicity of ZEN related to poultry, swine and ruminants are discussed.

Variações fisiológicas, influência da idade e sexo no perfil bioquímico sanguíneo de aves da linhagem pesada de frango de corte na fase de recria

RESUMO Este estudo teve o objetivo de comparar o perfil bioquímico sérico de machos e fêmeas da linhagem pesada de frango de corte, nas idades de quatro, 12 e 20 semanas, em uma unidade de produção industrial, no município de Uberlândia-MG. Após a pesagem das aves, foram coletadas amostras de sangue de 15 aves de cada sexo de cada faixa etária. Os soros obtidos foram avaliados em analisador automático para os seguintes parâmetros bioquímicos: proteína total, albumina, globulinas, ácido úrico, colesterol, triglicérides, gamaglutamiltransferase, aspartato aminotransferase, alanina aminotransferase, creatina quinase, fosfatase alcalina, cálcio e fósforo. Imediatamente após a coleta de cada amostra, avaliou-se a glicemia no sangue total, utilizando-se um glicosímetro. As alterações fisiológicas e metabólicas que as aves apresentaram na fase de recria refletiram na variação dos níveis bioquímicos séricos na maioria dos constituintes avaliados, os quais exibiram diferenças significativas (P<0,05), comparando-se sexo e idade.

Candida utilis ATCC 9950 Cell Walls and β(1,3)/(1,6)-Glucan Preparations Produced Using Agro-Waste as a Mycotoxins Trap

Mycotoxins are harmful contaminants of food and feed worldwide. Feed additives with the abilities to trap mycotoxins are considered substances which regulate toxin transfer from feed to tissue, reducing its absorption in animal digestive tract. Market analysis emphasizes growing interest of feed producers in mycotoxins binders obtained from yeast biomass. The aim of the study was to prescreen cell walls (CW) and β(1,3)/(1,6)-glucan (β-G) preparations isolated from Candida utilis ATCC 9950 cultivated on waste potato juice water with glycerol as adsorbents for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), zearalenone (ZEN), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV), T-2 toxin (T-2) and fumonisin B1 (FB1). The adsorption was studied in single concentration tests at pH 3.0 and 6.0 in the presence of 1% of the adsorbent and 500 ng/mL of individual toxin. Evaluated CW and β-G preparations had the potential to bind ZEN, OTA and AFB1 rather than DON, NIV, T-2 toxin and FB1. The highest percentage of adsorption (about 83%), adsorption capacity (approx. 41 µg/ g preparation) and distribution coefficient (458.7mL/g) was found for zearalenone when CW preparation was used under acidic conditions. Higher protein content in CW and smaller particles sizes of the formulation could influence more efficient binding of ZEN, OTA, DON and T-2 toxin at appropriate pH compared to purified β-G. Obtained results show the possibility to transform the waste potato juice water into valuable Candida utilis ATCC 9950 preparation with mycotoxins adsorption properties. Further research is important to improve the binding capacity of studied preparations by increasing the active surface of adsorption.

Effect of supplemental yeast cell walls on growth performance, gut mucosal glutathione pathway, proteolytic enzymes and transporters in growing broiler chickens

This study aimed to investigate the effect of supplemental yeast cell walls (YCW) on growth performance, gut mucosal glutathione pathway, proteolytic enzymes, and transporters in broiler chickens from 1 to 21 d of age. One-day-old broiler chickens (n = 480) were randomly allocated to 4 treatments with 6 replicates of 20 chicks each for diets containing YCW at 0, 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 g/kg. The results showed that YCW supplementation increased (P < 0.05) ADFI and ADG by 15.3% and 16.0%, respectively, and the 2 higher doses of YCW had greater effects (P < 0.05) than the lower dose. For the glutathione pathway in the duodenal mucosa, the levels of reduced glutathione and glutathione reductase in the YCW treatments were increased (P < 0.05) by 15.6% and 17.4%, respectively, but glutathione S-transferases was not affected. Similarly, the YCW increased (P < 0.05) the mucosal activities of trypsin, dipeptidyl, and leucine aminopeptidase by 12.4%, 5.5%, and 17.3%, respectively, and the mRNA profiles of neutral, cationic, and oligopeptide transporters by 62.5%, 69.1%, and 11.5%, respectively. The YCW also increased (P < 0.05) the concentrations of Thr, Met, Ile, Leu, Lys, Arg, and Tyr in the blood by 8.8% to 39.2%. Additionally, the ADFI, ADG, reduced glutathione, trypsin, dipeptidyl aminopeptidase, leucine aminopeptidase, and cationic amino acid transporter increased linearly and quadratically (P < 0.05) with YCW supplementation. The results suggest that YCW supplementation can beneficially modulate intestinal glutathione pathway, proteolytic enzyme activity, and nutrient transport in growing animals.

Creatine kinase and ATPase activities in piglets fed a fungal mycotoxin co-contaminated diet: Consequences in the pathogenesis of subclinical intoxication

Creatine kinase (CK) activity, through the creatine-kinase-phosphocreatine (CK/PCr) system, provides a temporal and spatial energy buffer to maintain cellular energetic homeostasis, being responsible to provide adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to the proper function of ATPases enzymes, such as the sodium-potassium (Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase) and hydrogen (H⁺-ATPase) pumps. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the involvement of CK/PCr system in the impairment of energetic homeostasis in piglets fed with a diet co-contaminated with mycotoxins, as well as the effects on ATPases enzymes. Animals were randomly divided in two groups (eight repetitions with two animals each): CON (basal diet) and MYC (mycotoxin diet; 9300 μg/kg of aflatoxins and 8000 μg/kg of fumonisins) which were feed during 15 days. Piglets that received a diet containing 300 μg/kg of aflatoxins and 8000 μg/kg of fumonisins (MYC group) presented lower body weight on days 10 and 15 of experiment when compared to control (CON group). Serum CK activity was lower on days 5, 10 and 15 of experiment in the MYC group. The same occurred for serum Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase and H⁺-ATPase activities on days 10 and 15 when compared to CON group. Moreover, serum calcium levels were superior on day 15 of experiment in the MYC group, while serum potassium and sodium levels were lower in comparison to CON group. Based on these evidences, a diet co-contaminated by aflatoxins and fumonisins inhibits serum CK activity, impairing the energetic homeostasis. This inhibition alters the activities of ATPases (Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase and H⁺-ATPase), contributing to the imbalance of Na⁺, K⁺ and Ca⁺ ionic levels. In summary, the cascade of alterations contributes directly to disease pathogenesis of piglets intoxicated by mycotoxins.

Lactobacillus plantarum MYS6 Ameliorates Fumonisin B1-Induced Hepatorenal Damage in Broilers

Fumonisin B1 (FB1), a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium species is a predominant Group 2B carcinogen occurring in maize and maize-based poultry feeds. It is shown to be nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, neurotoxic, and immunosuppressing in animals. In this study, we report the ameliorating effects of a probiotic strain, Lactobacillus plantarum MYS6 on FB1-induced toxicity and oxidative damage in broilers. A 6-week dietary experiment consisting of 48 broilers was performed in six treatment groups. Probiotic treatment (10⁹ cells/mL) involved pre-colonization of broilers with L. plantarum MYS6 while co-administration treatment involved supplementation of probiotic and FB1-contaminated diet (200 mg/Kg feed) simultaneously. At the end of the treatment period, growth performance, hematology, serum biochemistry, and markers of oxidative stress in serum and tissue homogenates were evaluated in all the broilers. The histopathological changes in hepatic and renal tissues were further studied. The results demonstrated that administration of L. plantarum MYS6 efficiently improved the feed intake, body weight and feed conversion ratio in broilers. It mitigated the altered levels of hematological indices such as complete blood count, hemoglobin, and hematocrit. Serum parameters such as serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase, serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase, creatinine, cholesterol, triglycerides, and albumin were significantly restored after administering the probiotic in FB1-intoxicated broilers. Additionally, L. plantarum MYS6 alleviated the levels of oxidative stress markers in serum and tissue homogenate of liver. The histopathological data of liver and kidney further substantiated the overall protection offered by L. plantarum MYS6 against FB1-induced cellular toxicity and organ damage in broilers. Our results indicated that co-administration of probiotic along with the toxin had better effect in detoxification compared to its pre-colonization in broilers. Collectively, our study signifies the protective role of L. plantarum MYS6 in ameliorating the FB1-induced toxicity in the vital organs and subsequent oxidative stress in broilers. The probiotic L. plantarum MYS6 can further be formulated into a functional feed owing to its anti-fumonisin attributes and role in mitigating FB1-induced hepatorenal damage.

Effects of aflatoxin B1 combined with ochratoxin A and/or zearalenone on metabolism, immune function, and antioxidant status in lactating dairy goats

OBJECTIVE

This experiment investigated the effects of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) alone or mixed with ochratoxin A (OTA) and/or zearalenone (ZEA) on the metabolism, immune function, and antioxidant status of dairy goats.

METHODS

Fifty lactating Laoshan dairy goats were randomly assigned to one of five treatment groups (n = 10) for 14 days. Goats were fed no additive (control) or administered with 50 μg AFB1/kg dry matter (DM) (AFB1), 50 μg AFB1/kg DM+100 μg OTA/kg DM (AFB1+ OTA), 50 μg AFB1/kg DM+500 μg ZEA/kg DM (AFB1+ZEA), or 50 μg AFB1/kg DM+100 μg OTA/kg DM+500 μg ZEA/kg DM (AFB1+OTA+ZEA).

RESULTS

Dry matter intake and milk production were lower in goats fed AFB1+OTA+ZEA than in controls. Supplementation with AFB1, OTA, and ZEA significantly decreased red blood cell count, hematocrit, mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular hemoglobin, and mean platelet volume, and significantly increased white blood cell count, when compared with the control group. Compared with control, the combination of AFB1, OTA, and ZEA significantly increased alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activities, total bilirubin (TBIL), interleukin-6, and malondialdehyde (MDA), but significantly reduced immunoglobulin A concentration, the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxides (GSH-Px), and total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) in serum. Administration of AFB1 combined with OTA led to higher ALP, ALT, TBIL, and MDA, as well as lower milk production, SOD and GSH-Px activities, and T-AOC, than administration of AFB1 combined with ZEA.

CONCLUSION

The mixture of AFB1, OTA, and ZEA exerted the greatest adverse effects on dairy goats, meanwhile the deleterious damage of the other mycotoxin combinations were in varying degrees. The findings of this study could provide guidance for the prevention and treatment of the consequences of contamination of animal feeds with combinations of mycotoxin.