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Zhang L, Ma M, Li J, Qiao K, Xie Y, Zheng Y. Stimuli-responsive microcarriers and their application in tissue repair: A review of magnetic and electroactive microcarrier. Bioact Mater 2024; 39:147-162. [PMID: 38808158 PMCID: PMC11130597 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2024.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Revised: 04/07/2024] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Microcarrier applications have made great advances in tissue engineering in recent years, which can load cells, drugs, and bioactive factors. These microcarriers can be minimally injected into the defect to help reconstruct a good microenvironment for tissue repair. In order to achieve more ideal performance and face more complex tissue damage, an increasing amount of effort has been focused on microcarriers that can actively respond to external stimuli. These microcarriers have the functions of directional movement, targeted enrichment, material release control, and providing signals conducive to tissue repair. Given the high controllability and designability of magnetic and electroactive microcarriers, the research progress of these microcarriers is highlighted in this review. Their structure, function and applications, potential tissue repair mechanisms, and challenges are discussed. In summary, through the design with clinical translation ability, meaningful and comprehensive experimental characterization, and in-depth study and application of tissue repair mechanisms, stimuli-responsive microcarriers have great potential in tissue repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- LiYang Zhang
- School of Material Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, China
| | - Mengjiao Ma
- Beijing Wanjie Medical Device Co., Ltd, Beijing, China
| | - Junfei Li
- School of Material Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, China
| | - Kun Qiao
- Beijing Gerecov Technology Company Ltd., Beijing, China
| | - Yajie Xie
- Beijing Gerecov Technology Company Ltd., Beijing, China
| | - Yudong Zheng
- School of Material Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, China
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2
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Gupta P, Sharma S, Jabin S, Jadoun S. Chitosan nanocomposite for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine: A review. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 254:127660. [PMID: 37907176 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.127660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2023] [Revised: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023]
Abstract
Regenerative medicine and tissue engineering have emerged as a multidisciplinary promising field in the quest to address the limitations of traditional medical approaches. One of the key aspects of these fields is the development of such types of biomaterials that can mimic the extracellular matrix and provide a conducive environment for tissue regeneration. In this regard, chitosan has played a vital role which is a naturally derived linear bi-poly-aminosaccharide, and has gained significant attention due to its biocompatibility and unique properties. Chitosan possesses many unique physicochemical properties, making it a significant polysaccharide for different applications such as agriculture, nutraceutical, biomedical, food, nutraceutical, packaging, etc. as well as significant material for developing next-generation hydrogel and bio-scaffolds for regenerative medicinal applications. Moreover, chitosan can be easily modified to incorporate desirable properties, such as improved mechanical strength, enhanced biodegradability, and controlled release of bioactive molecules. Blending chitosan with other polymers or incorporating nanoparticles into its matrix further expands its potential in tissue engineering applications. This review summarizes the most recent studies of the last 10 years based on chitosan, blends, and nanocomposites and their application in bone tissue engineering, hard tissue engineering, dental implants, dental tissue engineering, dental fillers, and cartilage tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priti Gupta
- Department of Chemistry, Manav Rachna University, Faridabad, Haryana 121001, India.
| | - Shilpa Sharma
- Department of Chemistry, Manav Rachna University, Faridabad, Haryana 121001, India.
| | - Shagufta Jabin
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering, Manav Rachna International Institute of Research & Studies, Faridabad, India.
| | - Sapana Jadoun
- Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Tarapacá, Avda. General Velásquez, 1775 Arica, Chile.
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3
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Peng Y, Zhuang Y, Liu Y, Le H, Li D, Zhang M, Liu K, Zhang Y, Zuo J, Ding J. Bioinspired gradient scaffolds for osteochondral tissue engineering. EXPLORATION (BEIJING, CHINA) 2023; 3:20210043. [PMID: 37933242 PMCID: PMC10624381 DOI: 10.1002/exp.20210043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 11/08/2023]
Abstract
Repairing articular osteochondral defects present considerable challenges in self-repair due to the complex tissue structure and low proliferation of chondrocytes. Conventional clinical therapies have not shown significant efficacy, including microfracture, autologous/allograft osteochondral transplantation, and cell-based techniques. Therefore, tissue engineering has been widely explored in repairing osteochondral defects by leveraging the natural regenerative potential of biomaterials to control cell functions. However, osteochondral tissue is a gradient structure with a smooth transition from the cartilage to subchondral bone, involving changes in chondrocyte morphologies and phenotypes, extracellular matrix components, collagen type and orientation, and cytokines. Bioinspired scaffolds have been developed by simulating gradient characteristics in heterogeneous tissues, such as the pores, components, and osteochondrogenesis-inducing factors, to satisfy the anisotropic features of osteochondral matrices. Bioinspired gradient scaffolds repair osteochondral defects by altering the microenvironments of cell growth to induce osteochondrogenesis and promote the formation of osteochondral interfaces compared with homogeneous scaffolds. This review outlines the meaningful strategies for repairing osteochondral defects by tissue engineering based on gradient scaffolds and predicts the pros and cons of prospective translation into clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yachen Peng
- Department of OrthopedicsChina‐Japan Union Hospital of Jilin UniversityChangchunP. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Polymer Ecomaterials, Changchun Institute of Applied ChemistryChinese Academy of SciencesChangchunP. R. China
| | - Yaling Zhuang
- Key Laboratory of Polymer Ecomaterials, Changchun Institute of Applied ChemistryChinese Academy of SciencesChangchunP. R. China
| | - Yang Liu
- Key Laboratory of Polymer Ecomaterials, Changchun Institute of Applied ChemistryChinese Academy of SciencesChangchunP. R. China
- Institute of BioengineeringÉcole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL)LausanneSwitzerland
| | - Hanxiang Le
- Key Laboratory of Polymer Ecomaterials, Changchun Institute of Applied ChemistryChinese Academy of SciencesChangchunP. R. China
| | - Di Li
- Key Laboratory of Polymer Ecomaterials, Changchun Institute of Applied ChemistryChinese Academy of SciencesChangchunP. R. China
| | - Mingran Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Polymer Ecomaterials, Changchun Institute of Applied ChemistryChinese Academy of SciencesChangchunP. R. China
| | - Kai Liu
- Key Laboratory of Polymer Ecomaterials, Changchun Institute of Applied ChemistryChinese Academy of SciencesChangchunP. R. China
| | - Yanbo Zhang
- Department of OrthopedicsChina‐Japan Union Hospital of Jilin UniversityChangchunP. R. China
| | - Jianlin Zuo
- Department of OrthopedicsChina‐Japan Union Hospital of Jilin UniversityChangchunP. R. China
| | - Jianxun Ding
- Key Laboratory of Polymer Ecomaterials, Changchun Institute of Applied ChemistryChinese Academy of SciencesChangchunP. R. China
- School of Applied Chemistry and EngineeringUniversity of Science and Technology of ChinaHefeiP. R. China
- Jilin Biomedical Polymers Engineering Laboratory, Changchun Institute of Applied ChemistryChinese Academy of SciencesChangchunP. R. China
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Xue Y, Li Y, Zhang D, Xu W, Ning C, Han D. Calcium Phosphate Silicate Microspheres with Soybean Lecithin as a Sustained-Release Bone Morphogenetic Protein-Delivery System for Bone Tissue Regeneration. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2023; 9:2596-2607. [PMID: 36947498 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.2c01065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/23/2023]
Abstract
Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) is a growth factor that effectively promotes osteogenesis. Microsphere-based drug-delivery systems can facilitate an increase in the local concentration of BMP, thus promoting bone formation. In this study, calcium phosphate silicate (CPS) microspheres were used as drug-loading systems for BMP. Three groups─CPS, CPS + BMP, and CPS + BMP + soy lecithin (SL)─were set up, where SL was used to prolong the osteogenic effect of the microsphere system. Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells and femoral defects in rats were used to compare the osteogenic ability of the three groups. The results indicated that CPS microspheres were good carriers of BMP, facilitating a smoother release into the cells and tissues. SL loading improved the loading rate of BMP, which promoted the osteogenic effect of the microspheres with BMP. We propose CPS microspheres as potential drug-delivery systems that can be effectively used in the treatment of bone defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaxin Xue
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, 639 Zhizaoju Road, 200011 Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Yun Li
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, 639 Zhizaoju Road, 200011 Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Dong Zhang
- Engineering Research Center for Biomedical Materials of Ministry of Education, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Xu
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, 639 Zhizaoju Road, 200011 Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Congqin Ning
- State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructure, Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200050, China
| | - Dong Han
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, 639 Zhizaoju Road, 200011 Shanghai, People's Republic of China
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Kankilic B, Bayramli E, Korkusuz P, Eroglu H, Sener B, Mutlu P, Korkusuz F. Vancomycin Containing PDLLA and PLGA/β-TCP Inhibit Biofilm Formation but Do Not Stimulate Osteogenic Transformation of Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells. Front Surg 2022; 9:885241. [PMID: 35846965 PMCID: PMC9283789 DOI: 10.3389/fsurg.2022.885241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Aims Chronic osteomyelitis, including implant-related prosthetic joint infection, is extremely difficult to cure. We develop vancomycin containing release systems from poly(d,l-lactide) (PDLLA) and poly(d,l-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) composites with beta-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) to treat methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus osteomyelitis. We ask whether vancomycin containing PDLLA/β-TCP and PLGA/β-TCP composites will prevent early biofilm formation, allow cell proliferation and osteogenic differentiation, and stimulate osteogenic signaling molecules in the absence of an osteogenic medium. Methods Composites were produced and characterized with scanning electron microscopy. In vitro vancomycin release was assessed for 6 weeks. Biofilm prevention was calculated by crystal violet staining. Human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hBM-MSCs) and osteosarcoma cell (SaOS-2) proliferation and differentiation were assessed with water soluble tetrazolium salt and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) staining. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction defined osteogenic signaling molecules for hBM-MSCs. Results Totally, 3.1 ± 0.2 mg and 3.4 ± 0.4 mg vancomycin released from PDLLA/β-TCP and the PLGA/β-TCP composites, respectively, and inhibited early biofilm formation. hBM-MSCs and SaOS-2 cells proliferated on the composites and stimulated ALP activity of cells. Runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) and SRY-Box transcription Factor 9 (SOX9) expressions were, however, lower with composites when compared with control. Conclusion Vancomycin containing PDLLA/β-TCP and PLGA/β-TCP composites inhibited early biofilm formation and proliferated and differentiated hBM-MSCs and SaOS-2 cells, but osteogenesis-related RUNX2 and SOX9 transcription factors were not strongly expressed in the absence of an osteogenic medium for 14 days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Berna Kankilic
- Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
- Correspondence: Berna Kankilic
| | - Erdal Bayramli
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Petek Korkusuz
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Hakan Eroglu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Burcin Sener
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Pelin Mutlu
- Central Laboratory, Molecular Biology and Biotechnology R&D, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Feza Korkusuz
- Department of Sports Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
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6
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Irmak G, Gümüşderelioğlu M. Patients- and tissue-specific bio-inks with photoactivated PRP and methacrylated gelatin for the fabrication of osteochondral constructs. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2021; 125:112092. [PMID: 33965102 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2021.112092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2021] [Revised: 03/14/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
In osteochondral tissue engineering, while the biochemical and mechanical properties of hydrogels guide stem cell proliferation and differentiation, physical and chemical stimulators also affect the differentiation of stem cells. Herein, we presented a patient and tissue-specific strategy for the development of biomimetic osteochondral constructs with gradient compositions. Osteochondral constructs were fabricated by gradually printing of bio-inks consisting of therapeutic platelet-rich plasma (PRP), adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells (AdMSCs), and extracellular matrix (ECM) mimetic hydrogel, microwave-assisted methacrylated gelatin (Gel-MA). Periodic application of light in the near infrared region (600-1200 nm wavelength) was used to induce platelet activation and also AdMSCs' differentiation. Gel-MA has the same structure as type I collagen and PRP has cartilage tissue-specific bioactive components, so they provide the appropriate environment for the differentiation of AdMSCs to osteochondral tissue. Histology, immunocytochemistry, and biochemical analyses indicated enhanced glycosaminoglycan (GAG) and calcium content, mineralization, and ECM production. Furthermore, RT-PCR results indicated the expressions of bone- and cartilage-specific genes. In conclusion, the periodically photoactivated hydrogels with relatively low degradation rate and high mechanical strength, and tissue-specific biomimetic structure promoted in-vitro osteochondral tissue formation including hyaline and hypertrophic cartilage and bone phases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gülseren Irmak
- Hacettepe University, Bioengineering Department, 06800 Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey; Hacettepe University, Chemical Engineering Department, 06800 Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Menemşe Gümüşderelioğlu
- Hacettepe University, Bioengineering Department, 06800 Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey; Hacettepe University, Chemical Engineering Department, 06800 Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey.
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7
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Liao S, Meng H, Li J, Zhao J, Xu Y, Wang A, Xu W, Peng J, Lu S. Potential and recent advances of microcarriers in repairing cartilage defects. J Orthop Translat 2021; 27:101-109. [PMID: 33520655 PMCID: PMC7810913 DOI: 10.1016/j.jot.2020.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2020] [Revised: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Articular cartilage regeneration is one of the challenges faced by orthopedic surgeons. Microcarrier applications have made great advances in cartilage tissue engineering in recent years and enable cost-effective cell expansion, thus providing permissive microenvironments for cells. In addition, microcarriers can be loaded with proteins, factors, and drugs for cartilage regeneration. Some microcarriers also have the advantages of injectability and targeted delivery. The application of microcarriers with these characteristics can overcome the limitations of traditional methods and provide additional advantages. In terms of the transformation potential, microcarriers have not only many advantages, such as providing sufficient and beneficial cells, factors, drugs, and microenvironments for cartilage regeneration, but also many application characteristics; for example, they can be injected to reduce invasiveness, transplanted after microtissue formation to increase efficiency, or combined with other stents to improve mechanical properties. Therefore, this technology has enormous potential for clinical transformation. In this review, we focus on recent advances in microcarriers for cartilage regeneration. We compare the characteristics of microcarriers with other methods for repairing cartilage defects, provide an overview of the advantages of microcarriers, discuss the potential of microcarrier systems, and present an outlook for future development. Translational potential of this article We reviewed the advantages and recent advances of microcarriers for cartilage regeneration. This review could give many scholars a better understanding of microcarriers, which can provide doctors with potential methods for treating patients with cartilage injure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sida Liao
- Institute of Orthopedics/ Beijing Key Laboratory of Regenerative Medicine in Orthopedics/ Key Laboratory of Musculoskeletal Trauma & War Injuries PLA, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100853, China
| | - Haoye Meng
- Institute of Orthopedics/ Beijing Key Laboratory of Regenerative Medicine in Orthopedics/ Key Laboratory of Musculoskeletal Trauma & War Injuries PLA, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100853, China
| | - Junkang Li
- Institute of Orthopedics/ Beijing Key Laboratory of Regenerative Medicine in Orthopedics/ Key Laboratory of Musculoskeletal Trauma & War Injuries PLA, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100853, China
| | - Jun Zhao
- Institute of Orthopedics/ Beijing Key Laboratory of Regenerative Medicine in Orthopedics/ Key Laboratory of Musculoskeletal Trauma & War Injuries PLA, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100853, China
| | - Yichi Xu
- Institute of Orthopedics/ Beijing Key Laboratory of Regenerative Medicine in Orthopedics/ Key Laboratory of Musculoskeletal Trauma & War Injuries PLA, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100853, China
| | - Aiyuan Wang
- Institute of Orthopedics/ Beijing Key Laboratory of Regenerative Medicine in Orthopedics/ Key Laboratory of Musculoskeletal Trauma & War Injuries PLA, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100853, China
| | - Wenjing Xu
- Institute of Orthopedics/ Beijing Key Laboratory of Regenerative Medicine in Orthopedics/ Key Laboratory of Musculoskeletal Trauma & War Injuries PLA, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100853, China
| | - Jiang Peng
- Institute of Orthopedics/ Beijing Key Laboratory of Regenerative Medicine in Orthopedics/ Key Laboratory of Musculoskeletal Trauma & War Injuries PLA, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100853, China
| | - Shibi Lu
- Institute of Orthopedics/ Beijing Key Laboratory of Regenerative Medicine in Orthopedics/ Key Laboratory of Musculoskeletal Trauma & War Injuries PLA, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100853, China
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8
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Martín AR, Patel JM, Zlotnick HM, Carey JL, Mauck RL. Emerging therapies for cartilage regeneration in currently excluded 'red knee' populations. NPJ Regen Med 2019; 4:12. [PMID: 31231546 PMCID: PMC6542813 DOI: 10.1038/s41536-019-0074-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2018] [Accepted: 04/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The field of articular cartilage repair has made significant advances in recent decades; yet current therapies are generally not evaluated or tested, at the time of pivotal trial, in patients with a variety of common comorbidities. To that end, we systematically reviewed cartilage repair clinical trials to identify common exclusion criteria and reviewed the literature to identify emerging regenerative approaches that are poised to overcome these current exclusion criteria. The term “knee cartilage repair” was searched on clinicaltrials.gov. Of the 60 trials identified on initial search, 33 were further examined to extract exclusion criteria. Criteria excluded by more than half of the trials were identified in order to focus discussion on emerging regenerative strategies that might address these concerns. These criteria included age (<18 or >55 years old), small defects (<1 cm2), large defects (>8 cm2), multiple defect (>2 lesions), BMI >35, meniscectomy (>50%), bilateral knee pathology, ligamentous instability, arthritis, malalignment, prior repair, kissing lesions, neurologic disease of lower extremities, inflammation, infection, endocrine or metabolic disease, drug or alcohol abuse, pregnancy, and history of cancer. Finally, we describe emerging tissue engineering and regenerative approaches that might foster cartilage repair in these challenging environments. The identified criteria exclude a majority of the affected population from treatment, and thus greater focus must be placed on these emerging cartilage regeneration techniques to treat patients with the challenging “red knee”.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony R Martín
- 1McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA.,2Translational Musculoskeletal Research Center, Corporal Michael J. Crescenz Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
| | - Jay M Patel
- 1McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA.,2Translational Musculoskeletal Research Center, Corporal Michael J. Crescenz Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
| | - Hannah M Zlotnick
- 1McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA.,2Translational Musculoskeletal Research Center, Corporal Michael J. Crescenz Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA.,3Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
| | - James L Carey
- 1McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
| | - Robert L Mauck
- 1McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA.,2Translational Musculoskeletal Research Center, Corporal Michael J. Crescenz Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA.,3Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
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Abstract
Background: Collagens of marine origin are applied increasingly as alternatives to mammalian collagens in tissue engineering. The aim of the present study was to develop a biphasic scaffold from exclusively marine collagens supporting both osteogenic and chondrogenic differentiation and to find a suitable setup for in vitro chondrogenic and osteogenic differentiation of human mesenchymal stroma cells (hMSC). Methods: Biphasic scaffolds from biomimetically mineralized salmon collagen and fibrillized jellyfish collagen were fabricated by joint freeze-drying and crosslinking. Different experiments were performed to analyze the influence of cell density and TGF-β on osteogenic differentiation of the cells in the scaffolds. Gene expression analysis and analysis of cartilage extracellular matrix components were performed and activity of alkaline phosphatase was determined. Furthermore, histological sections of differentiated cells in the biphasic scaffolds were analyzed. Results: Stable biphasic scaffolds from two different marine collagens were prepared. An in vitro setup for osteochondral differentiation was developed involving (1) different seeding densities in the phases; (2) additional application of alginate hydrogel in the chondral part; (3) pre-differentiation and sequential seeding of the scaffolds and (4) osteochondral medium. Spatially separated osteogenic and chondrogenic differentiation of hMSC was achieved in this setup, while osteochondral medium in combination with the biphasic scaffolds alone was not sufficient to reach this ambition. Conclusions: Biphasic, but monolithic scaffolds from exclusively marine collagens are suitable for the development of osteochondral constructs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Bernhardt
- Centre for Translational Bone, Joint and Soft Tissue Research, University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus and Faculty of Medicine of Technische Universität Dresden, Fetscherstraße 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany.
| | - Birgit Paul
- Centre for Translational Bone, Joint and Soft Tissue Research, University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus and Faculty of Medicine of Technische Universität Dresden, Fetscherstraße 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany.
| | - Michael Gelinsky
- Centre for Translational Bone, Joint and Soft Tissue Research, University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus and Faculty of Medicine of Technische Universität Dresden, Fetscherstraße 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany.
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10
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Gupta V, Khan Y, Berkland CJ, Laurencin CT, Detamore MS. Microsphere-Based Scaffolds in Regenerative Engineering. Annu Rev Biomed Eng 2018. [PMID: 28633566 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-bioeng-071516-044712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Microspheres have long been used in drug delivery applications because of their controlled release capabilities. They have increasingly served as the fundamental building block for fabricating scaffolds for regenerative engineering because of their ability to provide a porous network, offer high-resolution control over spatial organization, and deliver growth factors/drugs and/or nanophase materials. Because they provide physicochemical gradients via spatiotemporal release of bioactive factors and nanophase ceramics, microspheres are a desirable tool for engineering complex tissues and biological interfaces. In this review we describe various methods for microsphere fabrication and sintering, and elucidate how these methods influence both micro- and macroscopic scaffold properties, with a special focus on the nature of sintering. Furthermore, we review key applications of microsphere-based scaffolds in regenerating various tissues. We hope to inspire researchers to join a growing community of investigators using microspheres as tissue engineering scaffolds so that their full potential in regenerative engineering may be realized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vineet Gupta
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045;
| | - Yusuf Khan
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Connecticut Health Campus, Farmington, Connecticut 06030; , .,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269.,Institute for Regenerative Engineering, University of Connecticut Health Campus, Farmington, Connecticut 06030
| | - Cory J Berkland
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045; .,Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045;
| | - Cato T Laurencin
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Connecticut Health Campus, Farmington, Connecticut 06030; , .,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269.,Institute for Regenerative Engineering, University of Connecticut Health Campus, Farmington, Connecticut 06030
| | - Michael S Detamore
- Stephenson School of Biomedical Engineering, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma 73019;
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11
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Farrugia BL, Lord MS, Whitelock JM, Melrose J. Harnessing chondroitin sulphate in composite scaffolds to direct progenitor and stem cell function for tissue repair. Biomater Sci 2018; 6:947-957. [DOI: 10.1039/c7bm01158j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
This review details the inclusion of chondroitin sulphate in bioscaffolds for superior functional properties in tissue regenerative applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- B. L. Farrugia
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering
- UNSW Sydney 2052
- Australia
| | - M. S. Lord
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering
- UNSW Sydney 2052
- Australia
| | - J. M. Whitelock
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering
- UNSW Sydney 2052
- Australia
| | - J. Melrose
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering
- UNSW Sydney 2052
- Australia
- Raymond Purves Bone and Joint Research Laboratory
- Kolling Institute Northern Sydney Local Health District
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12
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Generating Chondromimetic Mesenchymal Stem Cell Spheroids by Regulating Media Composition and Surface Coating. Cell Mol Bioeng 2017; 11:99-115. [PMID: 29623134 DOI: 10.1007/s12195-017-0517-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Spheroids of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in cartilage tissue engineering have been shown to enhance regenerative potential owing to their 3D structure. In this study, we explored the possibility of priming spheroids under different media to replace the use of inductive surface coatings for chondrogenic differentiation. METHODS Rat bone marrow-derived MSCs were organized into cell spheroids by the hanging drop technique and subsequently cultured on hyaluronic acid (HA) coated or non-coated well plates under different cell media conditions. Endpoint analysis included cell viability, DNA and Glycosaminoglycan (GAG) and collagen content, gene expression and immunohistochemistry. RESULTS For chondrogenic applications, MSC spheroids derived on non-coated surfaces outperformed the spheroids derived from HA-coated surfaces in matrix synthesis and collagen II gene expression. Spheroids on non-coated surfaces gave rise to the highest collagen and GAG when primed with medium containing insulin-like growth factor (IGF) for 1 week during spheroid formation. Spheroids that were grown in chondroinductive raw material-inclusive media such as aggrecan or chondroitin sulfate exhibited the highest Collagen II gene expression in the non-coated surface at 1 week. CONCLUSION Media priming by growth factors and raw materials might be a more predictive influencer of chondrogenesis compared to inductive-surfaces. Such tailored bioactivity of the stem cell spheroids in the stage of the spheroid formation may give rise to a platform technology that may eventually produce spheroids capable of chondrogenesis achieved by mere media manipulation, skipping the need for additional culture on a modified surface, that paves the way for cost-effective technologies.
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Abstract
Articular cartilage (AC) is a seemingly simple tissue that has only one type of constituting cell and no blood vessels and nerves. In the early days of tissue engineering, cartilage appeared to be an easy and promising target for reconstruction and this was especially motivating because of widespread AC pathologies such as osteoarthritis and frequent sports-induced injuries. However, AC has proven to be anything but simple. Recreating the varying properties of its zonal structure is a challenge that has not yet been fully answered. This caused the shift in tissue engineering strategies toward bioinspired or biomimetic approaches that attempt to mimic and simulate as much as possible the structure and function of the native tissues. Hydrogels, particularly gradient hydrogels, have shown great potential as components of the biomimetic engineering of the cartilaginous tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Gadjanski
- Belgrade Metropolitan University, Belgrade, Serbia
- BioSense Institute, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
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Gadjanski I. Recent advances on gradient hydrogels in biomimetic cartilage tissue engineering. F1000Res 2017; 6:F1000 Faculty Rev-2158. [PMID: 29333257 PMCID: PMC5749123 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.12391.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Articular cartilage (AC) is a seemingly simple tissue that has only one type of constituting cell and no blood vessels and nerves. In the early days of tissue engineering, cartilage appeared to be an easy and promising target for reconstruction and this was especially motivating because of widespread AC pathologies such as osteoarthritis and frequent sports-induced injuries. However, AC has proven to be anything but simple. Recreating the varying properties of its zonal structure is a challenge that has not yet been fully answered. This caused the shift in tissue engineering strategies toward bioinspired or biomimetic approaches that attempt to mimic and simulate as much as possible the structure and function of the native tissues. Hydrogels, particularly gradient hydrogels, have shown great potential as components of the biomimetic engineering of the cartilaginous tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Gadjanski
- Belgrade Metropolitan University, Belgrade, Serbia
- BioSense Institute, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
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Celikkin N, Rinoldi C, Costantini M, Trombetta M, Rainer A, Święszkowski W. Naturally derived proteins and glycosaminoglycan scaffolds for tissue engineering applications. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2017; 78:1277-1299. [PMID: 28575966 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2017.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2016] [Revised: 04/02/2017] [Accepted: 04/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Tissue engineering (TE) aims to mimic the complex environment where organogenesis takes place using advanced materials to recapitulate the tissue niche. Cells, three-dimensional scaffolds and signaling factors are the three main and essential components of TE. Over the years, materials and processes have become more and more sophisticated, allowing researchers to precisely tailor the final chemical, mechanical, structural and biological features of the designed scaffolds. In this review, we will pose the attention on two specific classes of naturally derived polymers: fibrous proteins and glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). These materials hold great promise for advances in the field of regenerative medicine as i) they generally undergo a fast remodeling in vivo favoring neovascularization and functional cells organization and ii) they elicit a negligible immune reaction preventing severe inflammatory response, both representing critical requirements for a successful integration of engineered scaffolds with the host tissue. We will discuss the recent achievements attained in the field of regenerative medicine by using proteins and GAGs, their merits and disadvantages and the ongoing challenges to move the current concepts to practical clinical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nehar Celikkin
- Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Material Science and Engineering, 141 Woloska str., 02-507 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Chiara Rinoldi
- Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Material Science and Engineering, 141 Woloska str., 02-507 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Marco Costantini
- Tissue Engineering Unit, Department of Engineering, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via Alvaro del Portillo 21, 00128 Rome, Italy
| | - Marcella Trombetta
- Tissue Engineering Unit, Department of Engineering, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via Alvaro del Portillo 21, 00128 Rome, Italy
| | - Alberto Rainer
- Tissue Engineering Unit, Department of Engineering, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via Alvaro del Portillo 21, 00128 Rome, Italy
| | - Wojciech Święszkowski
- Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Material Science and Engineering, 141 Woloska str., 02-507 Warsaw, Poland.
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Gupta V, Tenny KM, Barragan M, Berkland CJ, Detamore MS. Microsphere-based scaffolds encapsulating chondroitin sulfate or decellularized cartilage. J Biomater Appl 2016; 31:328-43. [PMID: 27358376 PMCID: PMC5179140 DOI: 10.1177/0885328216655469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular matrix materials such as decellularized cartilage (DCC) and chondroitin sulfate (CS) may be attractive chondrogenic materials for cartilage regeneration. The goal of the current study was to investigate the effects of encapsulation of DCC and CS in homogeneous microsphere-based scaffolds, and to test the hypothesis that encapsulation of these extracellular matrix materials would induce chondrogenesis of rat bone marrow stromal cells. Four different types of homogeneous scaffolds were fabricated from microspheres of poly(D,L-lactic-co-glycolic acid): Blank (poly(D,L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) only; negative control), transforming growth factor-β3 encapsulated (positive control), DCC encapsulated, and CS encapsulated. These scaffolds were then seeded with rat bone marrow stromal cells and cultured for 6 weeks. The DCC and CS encapsulation altered the morphological features of the microspheres, resulting in higher porosities in these groups. Moreover, the mechanical properties of the scaffolds were impacted due to differences in the degree of sintering, with the CS group exhibiting the highest compressive modulus. Biochemical evidence suggested a mitogenic effect of DCC and CS encapsulation on rat bone marrow stromal cells with the matrix synthesis boosted primarily by the inherently present extracellular matrix components. An important finding was that the cell seeded CS and DCC groups at week 6 had up to an order of magnitude higher glycosaminoglycan contents than their acellular counterparts. Gene expression results indicated a suppressive effect of DCC and CS encapsulation on rat bone marrow stromal cell chondrogenesis with differences in gene expression patterns existing between the DCC and CS groups. Overall, DCC and CS were easily included in microsphere-based scaffolds; however, there is a requirement to further refine their concentrations to achieve the differentiation profiles we seek in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vineet Gupta
- Bioengineering Graduate Program, University of Kansas, USA
| | - Kevin M Tenny
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Kansas, USA
| | | | - Cory J Berkland
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Kansas, USA Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, USA
| | - Michael S Detamore
- Bioengineering Graduate Program, University of Kansas, USA Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Kansas, USA
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Gupta V, Lyne DV, Barragan M, Berkland CJ, Detamore MS. Microsphere-based scaffolds encapsulating tricalcium phosphate and hydroxyapatite for bone regeneration. JOURNAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE. MATERIALS IN MEDICINE 2016; 27:121. [PMID: 27272903 PMCID: PMC5299100 DOI: 10.1007/s10856-016-5734-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Accepted: 05/28/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Bioceramic mixtures of tricalcium phosphate (TCP) and hydroxyapatite (HAp) are widely used for bone regeneration because of their excellent cytocompatibility, osteoconduction, and osteoinduction. Therefore, we hypothesized that incorporation of a mixture of TCP and HAp in microsphere-based scaffolds would enhance osteogenesis of rat bone marrow stromal cells (rBMSCs) compared to a positive control of scaffolds with encapsulated bone-morphogenic protein-2 (BMP-2). Poly(D,L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microsphere-based scaffolds encapsulating TCP and HAp mixtures in two different ratios (7:3 and 1:1) were fabricated with the same net ceramic content (30 wt%) to evaluate how incorporation of these ceramic mixtures would affect the osteogenesis in rBMSCs. Encapsulation of TCP/HAp mixtures impacted microsphere morphologies and the compressive moduli of the scaffolds. Additionally, TCP/HAp mixtures enhanced the end-point secretion of extracellular matrix components relevant to bone tissue compared to the "blank" (PLGA-only) microsphere-based scaffolds as evidenced by the biochemical, gene expression, histology, and immunohistochemical characterization. Moreover, the TCP/HAp mixture groups even surpassed the BMP-2 positive control group in some instances in terms of matrix synthesis and gene expression. Lastly, gene expression data suggested that the rBMSCs responded differently to different TCP/HAp ratios presented to them. Altogether, it can be concluded that TCP/HAp mixtures stimulated the differentiation of rBMSCs toward an osteoblastic phenotype, and therefore may be beneficial in gradient microsphere-based scaffolds for osteochondral regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vineet Gupta
- Bioengineering Graduate Program, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
| | - Dina V Lyne
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, The University of Kansas, 4149 Learned Hall 1530 W. 15th Street, Lawrence, KS, 66045-7618, USA
| | - Marilyn Barragan
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
| | - Cory J Berkland
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, The University of Kansas, 4149 Learned Hall 1530 W. 15th Street, Lawrence, KS, 66045-7618, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
| | - Michael S Detamore
- Bioengineering Graduate Program, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA.
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, The University of Kansas, 4149 Learned Hall 1530 W. 15th Street, Lawrence, KS, 66045-7618, USA.
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Gupta V, Lyne DV, Laflin AD, Zabel TA, Barragan M, Bunch JT, Pacicca DM, Detamore MS. Microsphere-Based Osteochondral Scaffolds Carrying Opposing Gradients Of Decellularized Cartilage And Demineralized Bone Matrix. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2016; 3:1955-1963. [PMID: 32793803 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.6b00071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular matrix (ECM) "raw materials" such as demineralized bone matrix (DBM) and cartilage matrix have emerged as leading scaffolding materials for osteochondral regeneration owing to their capacity to facilitate progenitor/resident cell recruitment, infiltration, and differentiation without adding growth factors. Scaffolds comprising synthetic polymers are sturdy yet generally lack cues for guiding cell differentiation. We hypothesized that opposing gradients of decellularized cartilage (DCC) and DBM in polymeric microsphere-based scaffolds would provide superior regeneration compared to polymer-only scaffolds in vivo. Poly(D,L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microsphere-based scaffolds were fabricated, either with opposing gradients of DCC and DBM encapsulated (GRADIENT) or without DCC and DBM (BLANK control), and implanted into rabbit osteochondral defects in medial femoral condyles. After 12 weeks, gross morphological evaluation showed that the repair tissue in about 30% of the implants was either slightly or significantly depressed, hinting toward rapid polymer degradation in scaffolds from both of the groups. Additionally, no differences were observed in gross morphology of the repair tissue between the BLANK and GRADIENT groups. Mechanical testing revealed no significant differences in model parameter values between the two groups. Histological observations demonstrated that the repair tissue in both of the groups was fibrous in nature with the cells demonstrating notable proliferation and matrix deposition activity. No adverse inflammatory response was observed in any of the implants from the two groups. Overall, the results emphasize the need to improve the technology in terms of altering the DBM and DCC concentrations, and tailoring the polymer degradation to these concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vineet Gupta
- Bioengineering Graduate Program, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, United States
| | - Dina V Lyne
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, United States
| | - Amy D Laflin
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, United States
| | - Taylor A Zabel
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, United States
| | - Marilyn Barragan
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, United States
| | - Joshua T Bunch
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, United States
| | - Donna M Pacicca
- Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, Children's Mercy Hospital, Kansas City, Missouri, United States.,School of Medicine, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri, United States
| | - Michael S Detamore
- Bioengineering Graduate Program, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, United States.,Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, United States
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Sridharan B, Mohan N, Berkland CJ, Detamore MS. Material characterization of microsphere-based scaffolds with encapsulated raw materials. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2016; 63:422-8. [PMID: 27040236 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2016.02.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2015] [Revised: 12/14/2015] [Accepted: 02/13/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
"Raw materials," or materials capable of serving both as building blocks and as signals, which are often but not always natural materials, are taking center stage in biomaterials for contemporary regenerative medicine. In osteochondral tissue engineering, a field leveraging the underlying bone to facilitate cartilage regeneration, common raw materials include chondroitin sulfate (CS) for cartilage and β-tricalcium phosphate (TCP) for bone. Building on our previous work with gradient scaffolds based on microspheres, here we delved deeper into the characterization of individual components. In the current study, the release of CS and TCP from poly(D, L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microsphere-based scaffolds was evaluated over a time period of 4 weeks. Raw material encapsulated groups were compared to 'blank' groups and evaluated for surface topology, molecular weight, and mechanical performance as a function of time. The CS group may have led to increased surface porosity, and the addition of CS improved the mechanical performance of the scaffold. The finding that CS was completely released into the surrounding media by 4 weeks has a significant impact on future in vivo studies, given rapid bioavailability. The addition of TCP seemed to contribute to the rough external appearance of the scaffold. The current study provides an introduction to degradation patterns of homogenous raw material encapsulated scaffolds, providing characterization data to advance the field of microsphere-based scaffolds in tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Neethu Mohan
- Division of Tissue Engineering and Regeneration Technologies, Biomedical Technology Wing, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Trivandrum, Kerala, India
| | - Cory J Berkland
- Bioengineering Program, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA; Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA; Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
| | - Michael S Detamore
- Bioengineering Program, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA; Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA.
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