STAT3 Regulates Mouse Neural Progenitor Proliferation and Differentiation by Promoting Mitochondrial Metabolism

Exercise epigenetics is fueled by cell bioenergetics: Supporting role on brain plasticity and cognition

Exercise has the unique aptitude to benefit overall health of body and brain. Evidence indicates that the effects of exercise can be saved in the epigenome for considerable time to elevate the threshold for various diseases. The action of exercise on epigenetic regulation seems central to building an "epigenetic memory" to influence long-term brain function and behavior. As an intrinsic bioenergetic process, exercise engages the function of the mitochondria and redox pathways to impinge upon molecular mechanisms that regulate synaptic plasticity and learning and memory. We discuss how the action of exercise uses mechanisms of bioenergetics to support a "epigenetic memory" with long-term implications for neural and behavioral plasticity. This information is crucial for directing the power of exercise to reduce the burden of neurological and psychiatric disorders.

Leptin combined with withaferin A boost posthemorrhagic neurogenesis via activation of STAT3/SOCS3 pathway

Neurogenesis as a potential strategy to improve the consequences of intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). The current study investigates the effects of withaferin A (WFA) in combination with leptin (LEP) on ICH and neurogenesis mechanisms. LEP levels were dramatically reduced on days 7 and 14 following ICH insults in mice, but continuous WFA therapy significantly improved the potency of intrinsic LEP on day 14 after ICH. Furthermore, WFA combined with LEP enhances intrinsic neurogenesis and lessen motor deficits and long-term cognitive outcomes after ICH. In parallel, leptin deficiency in ob/ob mice limits enhancement of neurogenesis following ICH in response to WFA combined with LEP treatment. Importantly, the functional recovery conferred by WFA combined with LEP after ICH was inhibited by neurogenesis suppression. Mechanistically, this study unveiled that the signal transducer and activator of transcription-3 (STAT3) / suppressor of cytokine signaling-3 (SOCS3) pathway is a critical signaling pathway through which WFA combined with LEP treatment promotes intrinsic neurogenesis after ICH. Collectively, the results of this study elucidate the neuroprotective effects of WFA and LEP in ICH, and highlight a potential approach for ICH cell therapy.

JAK/STAT3 signaling in cardiac fibrosis: a promising therapeutic target

Cardiac fibrosis is a serious health problem because it is a common pathological change in almost all forms of cardiovascular diseases. Cardiac fibrosis is characterized by the transdifferentiation of cardiac fibroblasts (CFs) into cardiac myofibroblasts and the excessive deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM) components produced by activated myofibroblasts, which leads to fibrotic scar formation and subsequent cardiac dysfunction. However, there are currently few effective therapeutic strategies protecting against fibrogenesis. This lack is largely because the molecular mechanisms of cardiac fibrosis remain unclear despite extensive research. The Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK/STAT) signaling cascade is an extensively present intracellular signal transduction pathway and can regulate a wide range of biological processes, including cell proliferation, migration, differentiation, apoptosis, and immune response. Various upstream mediators such as cytokines, growth factors and hormones can initiate signal transmission via this pathway and play corresponding regulatory roles. STAT3 is a crucial player of the JAK/STAT pathway and its activation is related to inflammation, malignant tumors and autoimmune illnesses. Recently, the JAK/STAT3 signaling has been in the spotlight for its role in the occurrence and development of cardiac fibrosis and its activation can promote the proliferation and activation of CFs and the production of ECM proteins, thus leading to cardiac fibrosis. In this manuscript, we discuss the structure, transactivation and regulation of the JAK/STAT3 signaling pathway and review recent progress on the role of this pathway in cardiac fibrosis. Moreover, we summarize the current challenges and opportunities of targeting the JAK/STAT3 signaling for the treatment of fibrosis. In summary, the information presented in this article is critical for comprehending the role of the JAK/STAT3 pathway in cardiac fibrosis, and will also contribute to future research aimed at the development of effective anti-fibrotic therapeutic strategies targeting the JAK/STAT3 signaling.

STAT3/LKB1 controls metastatic prostate cancer by regulating mTORC1/CREB pathway

Prostate cancer (PCa) is a common and fatal type of cancer in men. Metastatic PCa (mPCa) is a major factor contributing to its lethality, although the mechanisms remain poorly understood. PTEN is one of the most frequently deleted genes in mPCa. Here we show a frequent genomic co-deletion of PTEN and STAT3 in liquid biopsies of patients with mPCa. Loss of Stat3 in a Pten-null mouse prostate model leads to a reduction of LKB1/pAMPK with simultaneous activation of mTOR/CREB, resulting in metastatic disease. However, constitutive activation of Stat3 led to high LKB1/pAMPK levels and suppressed mTORC1/CREB pathway, preventing mPCa development. Metformin, one of the most widely prescribed therapeutics against type 2 diabetes, inhibits mTORC1 in liver and requires LKB1 to mediate glucose homeostasis. We find that metformin treatment of STAT3/AR-expressing PCa xenografts resulted in significantly reduced tumor growth accompanied by diminished mTORC1/CREB, AR and PSA levels. PCa xenografts with deletion of STAT3/AR nearly completely abrogated mTORC1/CREB inhibition mediated by metformin. Moreover, metformin treatment of PCa patients with high Gleason grade and type 2 diabetes resulted in undetectable mTORC1 levels and upregulated STAT3 expression. Furthermore, PCa patients with high CREB expression have worse clinical outcomes and a significantly increased risk of PCa relapse and metastatic recurrence. In summary, we have shown that STAT3 controls mPCa via LKB1/pAMPK/mTORC1/CREB signaling, which we have identified as a promising novel downstream target for the treatment of lethal mPCa.

MAP4K4 is involved in the neuronal development of retinal photoreceptors

Mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase kinase-4 (MAP4K4) is a potential regulator of photoreceptor development. To investigate the mechanisms underlying MAP4K4 during the neuronal development of retinal photoreceptors, we generated knockout models of C57BL/6j mice in vivo and 661 W cells in vitro. Our findings revealed homozygous lethality and neural tube malformation in mice subjected to Map4k4 DNA ablation, providing evidence for the involvement of MAP4K4 in early stage embryonic neural formation. Furthermore, our study demonstrated that the ablation of Map4k4 DNA led to the vulnerability of photoreceptor neurites during induced neuronal development. By monitoring transcriptional and protein variations in mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway-related factors, we discovered an imbalance in neurogenesis-related factors in Map4k4 -/- cells. Specifically, MAP4K4 promotes jun proto-oncogene (c-JUN) phosphorylation and recruits other factors related to nerve growth, ultimately leading to the robust formation of photoreceptor neurites. These data suggest that MAP4K4 plays a decisive role in regulating the fate of retinal photoreceptors through molecular modulation and contributes to our understanding of vision formation.

FTY720-P, a Biased S1PR Ligand, Increases Mitochondrial Function through STAT3 Activation in Cardiac Cells

FTY720 is an FDA-approved sphingosine derivative drug for the treatment of multiple sclerosis. This compound blocks lymphocyte egress from lymphoid organs and autoimmunity through sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) receptor blockage. Drug repurposing of FTY720 has revealed improvements in glucose metabolism and metabolic diseases. Studies also demonstrate that preconditioning with this compound preserves the ATP levels during cardiac ischemia in rats. The molecular mechanisms by which FTY720 promotes metabolism are not well understood. Here, we demonstrate that nanomolar concentrations of the phosphorylated form of FTY720 (FTY720-P), the active ligand of S1P receptor (S1PR), activates mitochondrial respiration and the mitochondrial ATP production rate in AC16 human cardiomyocyte cells. Additionally, FTY720-P increases the number of mitochondrial nucleoids, promotes mitochondrial morphology alterations, and induces activation of STAT3, a transcription factor that promotes mitochondrial function. Notably, the effect of FTY720-P on mitochondrial function was suppressed in the presence of a STAT3 inhibitor. In summary, our results suggest that FTY720 promotes the activation of mitochondrial function, in part, through a STAT3 action.

Astrocyte development—More questions than answers

The past 15–20 years has seen a remarkable shift in our understanding of astrocyte contributions to central nervous system (CNS) function. Astrocytes have emerged from the shadows of neuroscience and are now recognized as key elements in a broad array of CNS functions. Astrocytes comprise a substantial fraction of cells in the human CNS. Nevertheless, fundamental questions surrounding their basic biology remain poorly understood. While recent studies have revealed a diversity of essential roles in CNS function, from synapse formation and function to blood brain barrier maintenance, fundamental mechanisms of astrocyte development, including their expansion, migration, and maturation, remain to be elucidated. The coincident development of astrocytes and synapses highlights the need to better understand astrocyte development and will facilitate novel strategies for addressing neurodevelopmental and neurological dysfunction. In this review, we provide an overview of the current understanding of astrocyte development, focusing primarily on mammalian astrocytes and highlight outstanding questions that remain to be addressed. We also include an overview of Drosophila glial development, emphasizing astrocyte-like glia given their close anatomical and functional association with synapses. Drosophila offer an array of sophisticated molecular genetic tools and they remain a powerful model for elucidating fundamental cellular and molecular mechanisms governing astrocyte development. Understanding the parallels and distinctions between astrocyte development in Drosophila and vertebrates will enable investigators to leverage the strengths of each model system to gain new insights into astrocyte function.

Maternal pre-eclampsia serum increases neurite growth and mitochondrial function through a potential IL-6-dependent mechanism in differentiated SH-SY5Y cells

Introduction: Pre-eclampsia (PE) is a common and serious hypertensive disorder of pregnancy, which affects 3%-5% of first-time pregnancies and is a leading cause of maternal and neonatal morbidity and mortality. Prenatal exposure to PE is associated with an increased risk of neurodevelopmental disorders in affected offspring, although the cellular and molecular basis of this increased risk is largely unknown. Methods: Here, we examined the effects of exposure to maternal serum from women with PE or a healthy uncomplicated pregnancy on the survival, neurite growth and mitochondrial function of neuronally differentiated human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells, which are commonly used to study neurite growth. Neurite growth and mitochondrial function are two strongly linked neurodevelopmental parameters in which alterations have been implicated in neurodevelopmental disorders. Following this, we investigated the pleiotropic cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels as a potential mechanism. Results: Cells exposed to 3% (v/v) PE serum for 72 h exhibited increased neurite growth (p < 0.05), which was validated in the human neural progenitor cell line, ReNcell^® VM (p < 0.01), and mitochondrial respiration (elevated oxygen consumption rate (p < 0.05), basal mitochondrial respiration, proton leak, ATP synthesis, and non-mitochondrial respiration) compared to control serum-treated cells. ELISA analysis showed elevations in maternal IL-6 in PE sera (p < 0.05) and placental explants (p < 0.05). In support of this, SH-SY5Y cells exposed to 3% (v/v) PE serum for 24 h had increased phospho-STAT3 levels, which is a key intracellular mediator of IL-6 signalling (p < 0.05). Furthermore, treatment with anti-IL-6 neutralizing antibody blocked the effects of PE serum on neurite growth (p < 0.05), and exposure to IL-6 promoted neurite growth in SH-SY5Y cells (p < 0.01). Discussion: Collectively these data show elevated serum levels of maternal IL-6 in PE, which increases neurite growth and mitochondrial function in SH-SY5Y cells. This rationalizes the further study of IL-6 as a potential mediator between PE exposure and neurodevelopmental outcome in the offspring.

Incretin Mimetics Restore the ER-Mitochondrial Axis and Switch Cell Fate Towards Survival in LUHMES Dopaminergic-Like Neurons: Implications for Novel Therapeutic Strategies in Parkinson's Disease

BACKGROUND

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative movement disorder that afflicts more than 10 million people worldwide. Available therapeutic interventions do not stop disease progression. The etiopathogenesis of PD includes unbalanced calcium dynamics and chronic dysfunction of the axis of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria that all can gradually favor protein aggregation and dopaminergic degeneration.

OBJECTIVE

In Lund Human Mesencephalic (LUHMES) dopaminergic-like neurons, we tested novel incretin mimetics under conditions of persistent, calcium-dependent ER stress.

METHODS

We assessed the pharmacological effects of Liraglutide-a glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) analog-and the dual incretin GLP-1/GIP agonist DA3-CH in the unfolded protein response (UPR), cell bioenergetics, mitochondrial biogenesis, macroautophagy, and intracellular signaling for cell fate in terminally differentiated LUHMES cells. Cells were co-stressed with the sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase (SERCA) inhibitor, thapsigargin.

RESULTS

We report that Liraglutide and DA3-CH analogs rescue the arrested oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis. They mitigate the suppressed mitochondrial biogenesis and hyper-polarization of the mitochondrial membrane, all to re-establish normalcy of mitochondrial function under conditions of chronic ER stress. These effects correlate with a resolution of the UPR and the deficiency of components for autophagosome formation to ultimately halt the excessive synaptic and neuronal death. Notably, the dual incretin displayed a superior anti-apoptotic effect, when compared to Liraglutide.

CONCLUSIONS

The results confirm the protective effects of incretin signaling in ER and mitochondrial stress for neuronal degeneration management and further explain the incretin-derived effects observed in PD patients.

Cucumber-Derived Nanovesicles Containing Cucurbitacin B for Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Therapy

Purpose

In recent years, a variety of nanoparticles with excellent anticancer and delivery properties have emerged for cancer therapy. However, potential toxicity, high production cost and complex preparation procedures have been obstacles to their use in biomedicine. Here, we obtained cucumber-derived nanovesicles (CDNVs) at high yield and low cost by simple juicing and ultracentrifugation. The anticancer effects of CDNVs were evaluated in vitro and in vivo.

Methods

Transmission electron microscope, nanoparticle tracking analysis and laser particle size analysis were used to characterize the morphology, diameter and zeta potential of CDNVs, respectively. The anticancer effects of CDNVs in vitro were evaluated by MTT and apoptosis assays. The mechanism was further explored by measuring the protein levels of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 pathway, reactive oxygen species, cell cycle distribution and caspase activity. In-vivo anticancer efficacy was evaluated by measuring tumor volume and weight of mice in three different treatment groups (CDNVs, cucurbitacin B and PBS).

Results

CDNVs inhibited proliferation of human non-small cell lung cancer cells by suppressing signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 activation, generating reactive oxygen species, promoting cell cycle arrest, and activating the caspase pathway. These CDNVs exhibited strong anticancer effects both in vitro and in vivo, and reduced the rate of tumor growth without obvious toxicity to mouse visceral organs. Compared with an equivalent dose of cucurbitacin B, CDNVs exerted stronger anticancer effects in vitro and in vivo.

Conclusion

These results demonstrate that CDNVs suppress tumor growth. This study addresses the development of cancer therapeutic drugs using plant-derived nanovesicles that are cost-efficient, simple to produce in high yields, and provide an alternative approach to drug isolation that may help advance sustainability of medicinal plants.

Targeting the transcriptional activity of STAT3 by a novel fusion protein

BACKGROUND

The continuous activation of transcription factors drives many diseases, including tumors, autoimmune disease, neurodegenerative disease, and male infertility. Thus, Blocking the transcriptional activity of these proteins may inhibit disease progression. In this study, we developed a new method to specifically inhibit the activity of the transcription factor STAT3.

METHODS

Fusing the transcriptional inhibitory domain KRAB with STAT3 successfully blocked the transcription activity of STAT3 in cancer cells without affecting its function in the mitochondria and lysosomes.

RESULTS

the expression of KRAB-STAT3 fusion protein inhibited the growth of tumor cells.

CONCLUSIONS

The KRAB-STAT3 fusion protein provides a novel approach for drug development for the treatment of cancer or autoimmune diseases.

TCF7 is highly expressed in immune cells on the atherosclerotic plaques, and regulating inflammatory signaling via NFκB/AKT/STAT1 signaling

Atherosclerosis, which is the fundamental basis for cardiovascular diseases in the global world, is driven by multiple roles of the immune system in the circulation and vascular plaque. Recent studies demonstrated that T cell infiltrates into aorta plaque and plays an important role in recruiting macrophages to the vascular wall. Here, using single-cell sequencing, we found T cells in patients’ plaques and differentially expressed genes of T cells in atherosclerosis mice. T cells and macrophages were continuously activated in atherosclerotic plaque in patients. Besides, other immune cells also take part in atherogenesis, such as NK cells, granulocytes. IFN/NFκB signaling, the AKT signaling pathway was highly activated in mouse (in vivo) and cell line (in vitro). TCF7, XCL1 were regulated by AKT and NFκB, respectively through Protein-protein Network analysis. Therefore, we attempt to clarify and discover potential genes and new mechanisms associated with atherosclerosis for drug development.

Mitochondria and Other Organelles in Neural Development and Their Potential as Therapeutic Targets in Neurodegenerative Diseases

The contribution of organelles to neural development has received increasing attention. Studies have shown that organelles such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), lysosomes, and endosomes play important roles in neurogenesis. Specifically, metabolic switching, reactive oxygen species production, mitochondrial dynamics, mitophagy, mitochondria-mediated apoptosis, and the interaction between mitochondria and the ER all have roles in neurogenesis. Lysosomes and endosomes can regulate neurite growth and extension. Moreover, metabolic reprogramming represents a novel strategy for generating functional neurons. Accordingly, the exploration and application of mechanisms underlying metabolic reprogramming will be beneficial for neural conversion and regenerative medicine. There is adequate evidence implicating the dysfunction of cellular organelles—especially mitochondria—in neurodegenerative disorders, and that improvement of mitochondrial function may reverse the progression of these diseases through the reinforcement of adult neurogenesis. Therefore, these organelles have potential as therapeutic targets for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we discuss the function of these organelles, especially mitochondria, in neural development, focusing on their potential as therapeutic targets in neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

swCAM: estimation of subtype-specific expressions in individual samples with unsupervised sample-wise deconvolution

MOTIVATION

Complex biological tissues are often a heterogeneous mixture of several molecularly distinct cell subtypes. Both subtype compositions and subtype-specific (STS) expressions can vary across biological conditions. Computational deconvolution aims to dissect patterns of bulk tissue data into subtype compositions and STS expressions. Existing deconvolution methods can only estimate averaged STS expressions in a population, while many downstream analyses such as inferring co-expression networks in particular subtypes require subtype expression estimates in individual samples. However, individual-level deconvolution is a mathematically underdetermined problem because there are more variables than observations.

RESULTS

We report a sample-wise Convex Analysis of Mixtures (swCAM) method that can estimate subtype proportions and STS expressions in individual samples from bulk tissue transcriptomes. We extend our previous CAM framework to include a new term accounting for between-sample variations and formulate swCAM as a nuclear-norm and ℓ2,1-norm regularized matrix factorization problem. We determine hyperparameter values using cross-validation with random entry exclusion and obtain a swCAM solution using an efficient alternating direction method of multipliers. Experimental results on realistic simulation data show that swCAM can accurately estimate STS expressions in individual samples and successfully extract co-expression networks in particular subtypes that are otherwise unobtainable using bulk data. In two real-world applications, swCAM analysis of bulk RNASeq data from brain tissue of cases and controls with bipolar disorder or Alzheimer's disease identified significant changes in cell proportion, expression pattern and co-expression module in patient neurons. Comparative evaluation of swCAM versus peer methods is also provided.

AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION

The R Scripts of swCAM are freely available at https://github.com/Lululuella/swCAM. A user's guide and a vignette are provided.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Cell Biology Meets Cell Metabolism: Energy Production Is Similar in Stem Cells and in Cancer Stem Cells in Brain and Bone Marrow

Energy production by means of ATP synthesis in cancer cells has been investigated frequently as a potential therapeutic target in this century. Both (an)aerobic glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) have been studied. Here, we review recent literature on energy production in glioblastoma stem cells (GSCs) and leukemic stem cells (LSCs) versus their normal counterparts, neural stem cells (NSCs) and hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), respectively. These two cancer stem cell types were compared because their niches in glioblastoma tumors and in bone marrow are similar. In this study, it became apparent that (1) ATP is produced in NSCs and HSCs by anaerobic glycolysis, whereas fatty acid oxidation (FAO) is essential for their stem cell fate and (2) ATP is produced in GSCs and LSCs by OXPHOS despite the hypoxic conditions in their niches with FAO and amino acids providing its substrate. These metabolic processes appeared to be under tight control of cellular regulation mechanisms which are discussed in depth. However, our conclusion is that systemic therapeutic targeting of ATP production via glycolysis or OXPHOS is not an attractive option because of its unwanted side effects in cancer patients.

Imaging Structural and Functional Dynamics in Xenopus Neurons

In vivo time-lapse imaging has been a fruitful approach to identify structural and functional changes in the Xenopus nervous system in tadpoles and adult frogs. Structural imaging studies have identified fundamental aspects of brain connectivity, development, plasticity, and disease and have been instrumental in elucidating mechanisms regulating these events in vivo. Similarly, assessment of nervous system function using dynamic changes in calcium signals as a proxy for neuronal activity has demonstrated principles of neuron and circuit function and principles of information organization and transfer within the brain of living animals. Because of its many advantages as an experimental system, use of Xenopus has often been at the forefront of developing these imaging methods for in vivo applications. Protocols for in vivo structural and functional imaging-including cellular labeling strategies, image collection, and image analysis-will expand the use of Xenopus to understand brain development, function, and plasticity.

Different Flavors of Astrocytes: Revising the Origins of Astrocyte Diversity and Epigenetic Signatures to Understand Heterogeneity after Injury

Astrocytes are a specific type of neuroglial cells that confer metabolic and structural support to neurons. Astrocytes populate all regions of the nervous system and adopt a variety of phenotypes depending on their location and their respective functions, which are also pleiotropic in nature. For example, astrocytes adapt to pathological conditions with a specific cellular response known as reactive astrogliosis, which includes extensive phenotypic and transcriptional changes. Reactive astrocytes may lose some of their homeostatic functions and gain protective or detrimental properties with great impact on damage propagation. Different astrocyte subpopulations seemingly coexist in reactive astrogliosis, however, the source of such heterogeneity is not completely understood. Altered cellular signaling in pathological compared to healthy conditions might be one source fueling astrocyte heterogeneity. Moreover, diversity might also be encoded cell-autonomously, for example as a result of astrocyte subtype specification during development. We hypothesize and propose here that elucidating the epigenetic signature underlying the phenotype of each astrocyte subtype is of high relevance to understand another regulative layer of astrocyte heterogeneity, in general as well as after injury or as a result of other pathological conditions. High resolution methods should allow enlightening diverse cell states and subtypes of astrocyte, their adaptation to pathological conditions and ultimately allow controlling and manipulating astrocyte functions in disease states. Here, we review novel literature reporting on astrocyte diversity from a developmental perspective and we focus on epigenetic signatures that might account for cell type specification.

Oxidative Stress Activated by Sorafenib Alters the Temozolomide Sensitivity of Human Glioma Cells Through Autophagy and JAK2/STAT3-AIF Axis

The development of temozolomide (TMZ) resistance in glioma leads to poor patient prognosis. Sorafenib, a novel diaryl urea compound and multikinase inhibitor, has the ability to effectively cross the blood-brain barrier. However, the effect of sorafenib on glioma cells and the molecular mechanism underlying the ability of sorafenib to enhance the antitumor effects of TMZ remain elusive. Here, we found that sorafenib could enhance the cytotoxic effects of TMZ in glioma cells in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, the combination of sorafenib and TMZ induced mitochondrial depolarization and apoptosis inducing factor (AIF) translocation from mitochondria to nuclei, and this process was dependent on STAT3 inhibition. Moreover, the combination of sorafenib and TMZ inhibited JAK2/STAT3 phosphorylation and STAT3 translocation to mitochondria. Inhibition of STAT3 activation promoted the autophagy-associated apoptosis induced by the combination of sorafenib and TMZ. Furthermore, the combined sorafenib and TMZ treatment induced oxidative stress while reactive oxygen species (ROS) clearance reversed the treatment-induced inhibition of JAK2/STAT3. The results indicate that sorafenib enhanced the temozolomide sensitivity of human glioma cells by inducing oxidative stress-mediated autophagy and JAK2/STAT3-AIF axis.