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Zhang K, Yao E, Aung T, Chuang PT. The alveolus: Our current knowledge of how the gas exchange unit of the lung is constructed and repaired. Curr Top Dev Biol 2024; 159:59-129. [PMID: 38729684 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2024.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2024]
Abstract
The mammalian lung completes its last step of development, alveologenesis, to generate sufficient surface area for gas exchange. In this process, multiple cell types that include alveolar epithelial cells, endothelial cells, and fibroblasts undergo coordinated cell proliferation, cell migration and/or contraction, cell shape changes, and cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions to produce the gas exchange unit: the alveolus. Full functioning of alveoli also involves immune cells and the lymphatic and autonomic nervous system. With the advent of lineage tracing, conditional gene inactivation, transcriptome analysis, live imaging, and lung organoids, our molecular understanding of alveologenesis has advanced significantly. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge of the constituents of the alveolus and the molecular pathways that control alveolar formation. We also discuss how insight into alveolar formation may inform us of alveolar repair/regeneration mechanisms following lung injury and the pathogenic processes that lead to loss of alveoli or tissue fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuan Zhang
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of California, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Erica Yao
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of California, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Thin Aung
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of California, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Pao-Tien Chuang
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of California, San Francisco, CA, United States.
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2
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Ferner K. Development of the terminal air spaces in the gray short-tailed opossum (Monodelphis domestica)- 3D reconstruction by microcomputed tomography. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0292482. [PMID: 38363783 PMCID: PMC10871483 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0292482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/13/2024] [Indexed: 02/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Marsupials are born with structurally immature lungs when compared to eutherian mammals. The gray short-tailed opossum (Monodelphis domestica) is born at the late canalicular stage of lung development. Despite the high degree of immaturity, the lung is functioning as respiratory organ, however supported by the skin for gas exchange during the first postnatal days. Consequently, the majority of lung development takes place in ventilated functioning state during the postnatal period. Microcomputed tomography (μCT) was used to three-dimensionally reconstruct the terminal air spaces in order to reveal the timeline of lung morphogenesis. In addition, lung and air space volume as well as surface area were determined to assess the functional relevance of the structural changes in the developing lung. The development of the terminal air spaces was examined in 35 animals from embryonic day 13, during the postnatal period (neonate to 57 days) and in adults. At birth, the lung of Monodelphis domestica consists of few large terminal air spaces, which are poorly subdivided and open directly from short lobar bronchioles. During the first postnatal week the number of smaller terminal air spaces increases and numerous septal ridges indicate a process of subdivision, attaining the saccular stage by 7 postnatal days. The 3D reconstructions of the terminal air spaces demonstrated massive increases in air sac number and architectural complexity during the postnatal period. Between 28 and 35 postnatal days alveolarization started. Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and a typical acinus developed. The volume of the air spaces and the surface area for gas exchange increased markedly with alveolarization. The structural transformation from large terminal sacs to the final alveolar lung in the gray short-tailed opossum follows similar patterns as described in other marsupial and placental mammals. The processes involved in sacculation and alveolarization during lung development seem to be highly conservative within mammalian evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten Ferner
- Department Evolutionary Morphology, Leibniz-Institut für Evolutions- und Biodiversitätsforschung, Museum für Naturkunde, Berlin, Germany
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3
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Ferner K, Mahlow K. 3D reconstruction of the bronchial tree of the Gray short-tailed opossum (Monodelphis domestica) in the postnatal period. J Anat 2023; 243:910-935. [PMID: 37497834 PMCID: PMC10641052 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Revised: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/30/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent didelphid marsupials resemble the assumed mammalian ancestor and are suitable to inform on the evolution of the mammalian lung. This study uses X-ray computed tomography (μCT) to three-dimensionally reconstruct the bronchial tree of the marsupial Gray short-tailed opossum (Monodelphis domestica) in order to reveal the timeline of morphogenesis during the postnatal period. The development of the bronchial tree was examined in 37 animals from embryonic day 13, during the postnatal period (neonate to 57 days) and in adults. The first appearance and the branching of lobar, segmental and sub-segmental bronchioles in the lungs were documented. Based on the reconstructions, the generation of end-branching airways, the median and maximum generation and the number of branches were calculated for each pulmonary lobe. At birth, the lung of M. domestica has a primitive appearance since it consists of a simple system of branching airways that end in a number of terminal air spaces, lobar bronchioles, and first segmental bronchioles are present. During the postnatal period, the volumes of the lung and bronchial tree steadily increase and development, differentiation, and expansion of the bronchial tree takes place. By 14 days, the fundamental bronchial tree consisting of lobar, segmental, and sub-segmental bronchioles has been established. A mature bronchial tree, including respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts is present by day 35. The asymmetry of the right (predominately four lobes) and the left lung (predominately two lobes), as present in M. domestica, can be considered as plesiomorphic for Mammalia. In marsupials, the process of branching morphogenesis, which takes place intrauterine in the placental fetus, is shifted to the postnatal period, but follows similar patterns as described in placentals. Lung maturation in general and the branching morphogenesis in particular seems to be highly conservative within mammalian evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten Ferner
- Museum für Naturkunde, Leibniz‐Institut für Evolutions‐ und BiodiversitätsforschungBerlinGermany
| | - Kristin Mahlow
- Museum für Naturkunde, Leibniz‐Institut für Evolutions‐ und BiodiversitätsforschungBerlinGermany
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4
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Bush D, Juliano C, Bowler S, Tiozzo C. Development and Disorders of the Airway in Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia. CHILDREN (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 10:1127. [PMID: 37508624 PMCID: PMC10378517 DOI: 10.3390/children10071127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023]
Abstract
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), a disorder characterized by arrested lung development, is a frequent cause of morbidity and mortality in premature infants. Parenchymal lung changes in BPD are relatively well-characterized and highly studied; however, there has been less emphasis placed on the role that airways disease plays in the pathophysiology of BPD. In preterm infants born between 22 and 32 weeks gestation, the conducting airways are fully formed but still immature and therefore susceptible to injury and further disruption of development. The arrest of maturation results in more compliant airways that are more susceptible to deformation and damage. Consequently, neonates with BPD are prone to developing airway pathology, particularly for patients who require intubation and positive-pressure ventilation. Airway pathology, which can be divided into large and small airways disease, results in increased respiratory morbidity in neonates with chronic lung disease of prematurity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas Bush
- Division of Pediatric Pulmonology, Department of Pediatrics, Mount Sinai Hospital, Icahn School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Courtney Juliano
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Mount Sinai Hospital, Icahn School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Selina Bowler
- Department of Pediatrics, New York University Langone-Long Island, Mineola, NY 11501, USA
| | - Caterina Tiozzo
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Mount Sinai Hospital, Icahn School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029, USA
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5
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Fan X, Valenzuela C, Zhao W, Chen Z, Wang D, Mentzer SJ. Stochastic simulations of self-organized elastogenesis in the developing lung. PLoS Comput Biol 2023; 19:e1011219. [PMID: 37315061 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023] Open
Abstract
In the normal lung, the dominant cable is an elastic "line element" composed of elastin fibers bound to a protein scaffold. The cable line element maintains alveolar geometry by balancing surface forces within the alveolus and changes in lung volume with exercise. Recent work in the postnatal rat lung has suggested that the process of cable development is self-organized in the extracellular matrix. Early in postnatal development, a blanket of tropoelastin (TE) spheres appear in the primitive lung. Within 7 to 10 days, the TE spheres are incorporated into a distributed protein scaffold creating the mature cable line element. To study the process of extracellular assembly, we used cellular automata (CA) simulations. CA simulations demonstrated that the intermediate step of tropoelastin self-aggregation into TE spheres enhanced the efficiency of cable formation more than 5-fold. Similarly, the rate of tropoelastin production had a direct impact on the efficiency of scaffold binding. The binding affinity of the tropoelastin to the protein scaffold, potentially reflecting heritable traits, also had a significant impact on cable development. In contrast, the spatial distribution of TE monomer production, increased Brownian motion and variations in scaffold geometry did not significantly impact simulations of cable development. We conclude that CA simulations are useful in exploring the impact of concentration, geometry, and movement on the fundamental process of elastogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiru Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Mechanical System and Vibration, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
- Meta Robotics Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Cristian Valenzuela
- Laboratory of Adaptive and Regenerative Biology, Brigham & Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Weijing Zhao
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Zi Chen
- Laboratory of Adaptive and Regenerative Biology, Brigham & Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Dong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Mechanical System and Vibration, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
- Meta Robotics Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Steven J Mentzer
- Laboratory of Adaptive and Regenerative Biology, Brigham & Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
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Dean CH, Cheong SS. Simple Models of Lung Development. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2023; 1413:17-28. [PMID: 37195524 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-26625-6_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Models are essential to further our understanding of lung development and regeneration and to facilitate identification and testing of potential treatments for lung diseases. A wide variety of rodent and human models are available that recapitulate one or more stages of lung development. This chapter describes the existing 'simple' in vitro, in silico and ex vivo models of lung development. We define which stage(s) of development each model recapitulates and highlight their pros and cons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte H Dean
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK.
| | - Sek-Shir Cheong
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK
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7
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Paramore SV, Goodwin K, Nelson CM. How to build an epithelial tree. Phys Biol 2022; 19. [DOI: 10.1088/1478-3975/ac9e38] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Nature has evolved a variety of mechanisms to build epithelial trees of diverse architectures within different organs and across species. Epithelial trees are elaborated through branch initiation and extension, and their morphogenesis ends with branch termination. Each of these steps of the branching process can be driven by the actions of epithelial cells themselves (epithelial-intrinsic mechanisms) or by the cells of their surrounding tissues (epithelial-extrinsic mechanisms). Here, we describe examples of how these mechanisms drive each stage of branching morphogenesis, drawing primarily from studies of the lung, kidney, salivary gland, mammary gland, and pancreas, all of which contain epithelial trees that form through collective cell behaviors. Much of our understanding of epithelial branching comes from experiments using mice, but we also include examples here from avian and reptilian models. Throughout, we highlight how distinct mechanisms are employed in different organs and species to build epithelial trees. We also highlight how similar morphogenetic motifs are used to carry out conserved developmental programs or repurposed to support novel ones. Understanding the unique strategies used by nature to build branched epithelia from across the tree of life can help to inspire creative solutions to problems in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.
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Riccetti MR, Ushakumary MG, Waltamath M, Green J, Snowball J, Dautel SE, Endale M, Lami B, Woods J, Ahlfeld SK, Perl AKT. Maladaptive functional changes in alveolar fibroblasts due to perinatal hyperoxia impair epithelial differentiation. JCI Insight 2022; 7:e152404. [PMID: 35113810 PMCID: PMC8983125 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.152404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Infants born prematurely worldwide have up to a 50% chance of developing bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), a clinical morbidity characterized by dysregulated lung alveolarization and microvascular development. It is known that PDGFR alpha-positive (PDGFRA+) fibroblasts are critical for alveolarization and that PDGFRA+ fibroblasts are reduced in BPD. A better understanding of fibroblast heterogeneity and functional activation status during pathogenesis is required to develop mesenchymal population-targeted therapies for BPD. In this study, we utilized a neonatal hyperoxia mouse model (90% O2 postnatal days 0-7, PN0-PN7) and performed studies on sorted PDGFRA+ cells during injury and room air recovery. After hyperoxia injury, PDGFRA+ matrix and myofibroblasts decreased and PDGFRA+ lipofibroblasts increased by transcriptional signature and population size. PDGFRA+ matrix and myofibroblasts recovered during repair (PN10). After 7 days of in vivo hyperoxia, PDGFRA+ sorted fibroblasts had reduced contractility in vitro, reflecting loss of myofibroblast commitment. Organoids made with PN7 PDGFRA+ fibroblasts from hyperoxia in mice exhibited reduced alveolar type 1 cell differentiation, suggesting reduced alveolar niche-supporting PDGFRA+ matrix fibroblast function. Pathway analysis predicted reduced WNT signaling in hyperoxia fibroblasts. In alveolar organoids from hyperoxia-exposed fibroblasts, WNT activation by CHIR increased the size and number of alveolar organoids and enhanced alveolar type 2 cell differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R. Riccetti
- The Perinatal Institute and Section of Neonatology, Perinatal and Pulmonary Biology, and
- Molecular and Developmental Biology Graduate Program, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | | | - Marion Waltamath
- The Perinatal Institute and Section of Neonatology, Perinatal and Pulmonary Biology, and
| | - Jenna Green
- The Perinatal Institute and Section of Neonatology, Perinatal and Pulmonary Biology, and
| | - John Snowball
- The Perinatal Institute and Section of Neonatology, Perinatal and Pulmonary Biology, and
| | - Sydney E. Dautel
- The Perinatal Institute and Section of Neonatology, Perinatal and Pulmonary Biology, and
| | - Mehari Endale
- The Perinatal Institute and Section of Neonatology, Perinatal and Pulmonary Biology, and
| | - Bonny Lami
- The Perinatal Institute and Section of Neonatology, Perinatal and Pulmonary Biology, and
| | - Jason Woods
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
- Center for Pulmonary Imaging Research, Division of Pulmonary Medicine & Department of Radiology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Shawn K. Ahlfeld
- The Perinatal Institute and Section of Neonatology, Perinatal and Pulmonary Biology, and
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Anne-Karina T. Perl
- The Perinatal Institute and Section of Neonatology, Perinatal and Pulmonary Biology, and
- Molecular and Developmental Biology Graduate Program, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
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9
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Jaslove JM, Goodwin K, Sundarakrishnan A, Spurlin JW, Mao S, Košmrlj A, Nelson CM. Transmural pressure signals through retinoic acid to regulate lung branching. Development 2022; 149:274047. [PMID: 35051272 PMCID: PMC8917413 DOI: 10.1242/dev.199726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
During development, the mammalian lung undergoes several rounds of branching, the rate of which is tuned by the relative pressure of the fluid within the lumen of the lung. We carried out bioinformatics analysis of RNA-sequencing of embryonic mouse lungs cultured under physiologic or sub-physiologic transmural pressure and identified transcription factor-binding motifs near genes whose expression changes in response to pressure. Surprisingly, we found retinoic acid (RA) receptor binding sites significantly overrepresented in the promoters and enhancers of pressure-responsive genes. Consistently, increasing transmural pressure activates RA signaling, and pharmacologically inhibiting RA signaling decreases airway epithelial branching and smooth muscle wrapping. We found that pressure activates RA signaling through the mechanosensor Yap. A computational model predicts that mechanical signaling through Yap and RA affects lung branching by altering the balance between epithelial proliferation and smooth muscle wrapping, which we test experimentally. Our results reveal that transmural pressure signals through RA to balance the relative rates of epithelial growth and smooth muscle differentiation in the developing mouse lung and identify RA as a previously unreported component in the mechanotransduction machinery of embryonic tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob M. Jaslove
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA,Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Katharine Goodwin
- Lewis-Sigler Institute for Integrative Genomics, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
| | - Aswin Sundarakrishnan
- Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
| | - James W. Spurlin
- Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA,Department of Biosciences, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | - Sheng Mao
- Department of Mechanics and Engineering Science, BIC-ESAT, College of Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, People's Republic of China,Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
| | - Andrej Košmrlj
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA,Princeton Institute for the Science & Technology of Materials, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
| | - Celeste M. Nelson
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA,Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA,Author for correspondence ()
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10
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Taghizadeh S, Chao CM, Guenther S, Glaser L, Gersmann L, Michel G, Kraut S, Goth K, Koepke J, Heiner M, Vazquez-Armendariz AI, Herold S, Samakovlis C, Weissmann N, Ricci F, Aquila G, Boyer L, Ehrhardt H, Minoo P, Bellusci S, Rivetti S. OUP accepted manuscript. Stem Cells 2022; 40:605-617. [PMID: 35437594 PMCID: PMC9216486 DOI: 10.1093/stmcls/sxac025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is a neonatal lung disease developing in premature babies characterized by arrested alveologenesis and associated with decreased Fibroblast growth factor 10 (FGF10) expression. One-week hyperoxia (HYX) exposure of newborn mice leads to a permanent arrest in alveologenesis. To test the role of Fgf10 signaling to promote de novo alveologenesis following hyperoxia, we used transgenic mice allowing inducible expression of Fgf10 and recombinant FGF10 (rFGF10) protein delivered intraperitoneally. We carried out morphometry analysis, and IF on day 45. Alveolospheres assays were performed co-culturing AT2s from normoxia (NOX) with FACS-isolated Sca1Pos resident mesenchymal cells (rMC) from animals exposed to NOX, HYX-PBS, or HYX-FGF10. scRNAseq between rMC-Sca1Pos isolated from NOX and HYX-PBS was also carried out. Transgenic overexpression of Fgf10 and rFGF10 administration rescued the alveologenesis defects following HYX. Alveolosphere assays indicate that the activity of rMC-Sca1Pos is negatively impacted by HYX and partially rescued by rFGF10 treatment. Analysis by IF demonstrates a significant impact of rFGF10 on the activity of resident mesenchymal cells. scRNAseq results identified clusters expressing Fgf10, Fgf7, Pdgfra, and Axin2, which could represent the rMC niche cells for the AT2 stem cells. In conclusion, we demonstrate that rFGF10 administration is able to induce de novo alveologenesis in a BPD mouse model and identified subpopulations of rMC-Sca1Pos niche cells potentially representing its cellular target.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Lea Glaser
- Cardio-Pulmonary Institute (CPI) and Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Luisa Gersmann
- Cardio-Pulmonary Institute (CPI) and Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Gabriela Michel
- Cardio-Pulmonary Institute (CPI) and Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Simone Kraut
- Cardio-Pulmonary Institute (CPI) and Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Kerstin Goth
- Cardio-Pulmonary Institute (CPI) and Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Janine Koepke
- Cardio-Pulmonary Institute (CPI) and Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Monika Heiner
- Cardio-Pulmonary Institute (CPI) and Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | | | | | - Christos Samakovlis
- Cardio-Pulmonary Institute (CPI) and Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Norbert Weissmann
- Cardio-Pulmonary Institute (CPI) and Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Francesca Ricci
- Neonatology and Pulmonary Rare Disease Unit, Chiesi Farmaceutici S.p.A., Parma, Italy
| | - Giorgio Aquila
- Neonatology and Pulmonary Rare Disease Unit, Chiesi Farmaceutici S.p.A., Parma, Italy
| | - Laurent Boyer
- Univ Paris Est Creteil, INSERM, IMRB, Creteil, France
| | - Harald Ehrhardt
- Cardio-Pulmonary Institute (CPI) and Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Parviz Minoo
- University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Saverio Bellusci
- Corresponding author: Saverio Bellusci, ; or, Stefano Rivetti, Cardio-Pulmonary Institute (CPI) and Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany;
| | - Stefano Rivetti
- Corresponding author: Saverio Bellusci, ; or, Stefano Rivetti, Cardio-Pulmonary Institute (CPI) and Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany;
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11
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Rippa AL, Alpeeva EV, Vasiliev AV, Vorotelyak EA. Alveologenesis: What Governs Secondary Septa Formation. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222212107. [PMID: 34829987 PMCID: PMC8618598 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222212107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Revised: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The simplification of alveoli leads to various lung pathologies such as bronchopulmonary dysplasia and emphysema. Deep insight into the process of emergence of the secondary septa during development and regeneration after pneumonectomy, and into the contribution of the drivers of alveologenesis and neo-alveolarization is required in an efficient search for therapeutic approaches. In this review, we describe the formation of the gas exchange units of the lung as a multifactorial process, which includes changes in the actomyosin cytoskeleton of alveocytes and myofibroblasts, elastogenesis, retinoic acid signaling, and the contribution of alveolar mesenchymal cells in secondary septation. Knowledge of the mechanistic context of alveologenesis remains incomplete. The characterization of the mechanisms that govern the emergence and depletion of αSMA will allow for an understanding of how the niche of fibroblasts is changing. Taking into account the intense studies that have been performed on the pool of lung mesenchymal cells, we present data on the typing of interstitial fibroblasts and their role in the formation and maintenance of alveoli. On the whole, when identifying cell subpopulations in lung mesenchyme, one has to consider the developmental context, the changing cellular functions, and the lability of gene signatures.
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