An Aggregation-Induced Emission-Based Indirect Competitive Immunoassay for Fluorescence "Turn-On" Detection of Drug Residues in Foodstuffs

Antiviral drugs in animal-derived matrices: A review

The ban of antiviral drugs in food-producing animals in several parts of the world, latest by Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2022/1644, has increased the need for food control laboratories to develop analytical methods and perform official controls. However, little is known about antiviral drugs, their use, and its analysis in food-producing animals in the EU. This review aims to provide insights into relevant viruses, antiviral drugs, and animal-derived matrices for analytical method development and monitoring purposes to implement in food control laboratories. For years, animal viruses, such as African swine fever and avian influenza, have caused many outbreaks. Besides, they led to large economic losses due to the applied control measures and a lack of available treatments. Considering these losses and the known effectiveness of authorized human antiviral drugs in different organisms, medicines such as amantadine in Chinese poultry have been misused. Various analytical methods, including screening assays and sensors (published 2016-2023), and mass spectrometry methods (published 2012-2023) have been outlined in this review for the monitoring of antiviral drugs in animal-derived matrices. However, pharmacokinetics information on metabolite formation and distribution of these substances in different animal-derived matrices is incomplete. Additionally, apart from a few countries, there is a lack of available data on the potential misuse of different antiviral drugs in animal-derived matrices. Although a handful of important antiviral drugs, such as influenza, broad-spectrum, antiretroviral, and herpes drugs, and animal-derived matrices, such as chicken muscle, are identified, the priority of the scope should be further specified by closing the aforementioned gaps.

Aggregation-induced emission-based competitive immunoassays for "signal-on" detection of proteins with multifunctional metal-organic frameworks as signal tags

An aggregation-induced emission (AIE)-based strategy was proposed for fluorescence immunoassays of protein biomarkers using Cu-based metal-organic frameworks (Cu-MOFs) to load recombinant targets and enzymes for dual signal amplification. The immunosensing platform was built based on the sequestration and consumption of the substrates of pyrophosphate (PPi) ions by Cu-MOFs and enzymatic catalysis. The negatively charged PPi could trigger the aggregation of positively charged tetraphenylethene (TPE)-substituted pyridinium salt nanoparticles (TPE-Py NPs) by electrostatic interactions, lighting up the fluorescence due to the AIE phenomenon. The consumption of PPi by the captured Cu-MOFs through the Cu2+-PPi chelation interaction and ALP-enzymatic hydrolysis depressed the aggregation of TPE-Py NPs. Capture of the tested targets in samples by the antibodies on the plate surface could prevent the attachment of target/ALP-loaded Cu-MOFs due to the competitive immunoreactions. The "signal-on" competitive immunoassay was applied for the detection of procalcitonin (PCT) as the model analyte with a linear range of 0.01-10 pg/mL and a detection limit down to 8 pg/mL. The conceptual integration of AIE with enzymatic and MOFs-based dual signal amplification endowed fluorescence immunoassays with high sensitivity and selectivity. The surface modification of Cu-MOFs with hexahistine (His6)-tagged recombinant proteins through metal coordination interactions should be evaluable for the design of novel biosensors.

Aggregates-based fluorescence sensing technology for food hazard detection: Principles, improvement strategies, and applications

Aggregates often exhibit modified or completely new properties compared with their molecular elements, making them an extraordinarily advantageous form of materials. The fluorescence signal change characteristics resulting from molecular aggregation endow aggregates with high sensitivity and broad applicability. In molecular aggregates, the photoluminescence properties at the molecular level can be annihilated or elevated, leading to aggregation-causing quenching (ACQ) or aggregation-induced emission (AIE) effects. This change in photoluminescence properties can be intelligently introduced in food hazard detection. Recognition units can combine with the aggregate-based sensor by joining the aggregation process, endowing the sensor with the high specificity of analytes (such as mycotoxins, pathogens, and complex organic molecules). In this review, aggregation mechanisms, structural characteristics of fluorescent materials (including ACQ/AIE-activated), and their applications in food hazard detection (with/without recognition units) are summarized. Because the design of aggregate-based sensors may be influenced by the properties of their components, the sensing mechanisms of different fluorescent materials were described separately. Details of fluorescent materials, including conventional organic dyes, carbon nanomaterials, quantum dots, polymers and polymer-based nanostructures and metal nanoclusters, and recognition units, such as aptamer, antibody, molecular imprinting, and host-guest recognition, are discussed. In addition, future trends of developing aggregate-based fluorescence sensing technology in monitoring food hazards are also proposed.

Enzymatic Electrochemical/Fluorescent Nanobiosensor for Detection of Small Chemicals

The detection of small molecules has attracted enormous interest in various fields, including the chemical, biological, and healthcare fields. In order to achieve such detection with high accuracy, up to now, various types of biosensors have been developed. Among those biosensors, enzymatic biosensors have shown excellent sensing performances via their highly specific enzymatic reactions with small chemical molecules. As techniques used to implement the sensing function of such enzymatic biosensors, electrochemical and fluorescence techniques have been mostly used for the detection of small molecules because of their advantages. In addition, through the incorporation of nanotechnologies, the detection property of each technique-based enzymatic nanobiosensors can be improved to measure harmful or important small molecules accurately. This review provides interdisciplinary information related to developing enzymatic nanobiosensors for small molecule detection, such as widely used enzymes, target small molecules, and electrochemical/fluorescence techniques. We expect that this review will provide a broad perspective and well-organized roadmap to develop novel electrochemical and fluorescent enzymatic nanobiosensors.

AIEgens: Next Generation Signaling Source for Immunoassays?

Luminogens with aggregation-induced emission (AIEgens) properties have numerous broad applications in fields of chemical and biological analyses due to their exceptional photostability, excellent signal reliability, high quantum yield, and large Stokes' shift. In particular, AIEgens also bring new blood for immunoassay. Since publication of the first 2004 paper, AIEgens-based immunoassays have received significant attention because of their high sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, and reliability. However, until now, there have been no comprehensive literature reviews focused on the evolving field of AIEgens-based immunoassays. Thus, we have extensively reviewed AIEgens-based immunoassays from their basic working principles to specific applications. We focus on several fundamental elements of AIEgens-based immunoassays, including the typical structures of AIEgens, emission mechanism of AIEgens probes, function of AIEgens in immunoassays, and platform of AIEgens-based immunoassays. Then, the representative applications of AIEgens-based immunoassays in food safety, medical diagnostics, and environmental monitoring are explored. Thus, proposals on how to further improve the AIEgens-based immunoassay performance are also discussed, as well as future challenges and perspectives, aiming to provide brief and valid guidelines for choosing suitable AIEgens-based immunoassays according to specific application requirements.

An aggregation-induced emission immunoassay for broad detection of polychlorinated biphenyls in chicken and crab

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are persistent organic pollutants (POPs) with multiple variants, which may be harmful to human health by absorption and bioaccumulation. To ensure food safety, it is necessary to develop multi-residue immunoassays for broad recognition of PCBs. In this study, by mimicking the generic core structure of PCBs, three haptens have been designed and synthesized for monoclonal antibody (mAb) generation. A carboxylic acid derivative of PCB80 was a hapten that induced a mAb with broad recognition of PCBs. The results of ELISA further identified that the mAb could recognize 11 different kinds of PCBs; half-maximal inhibition concentrations (IC₅₀) ranged from 33.12 to 476.42 ng/mL. Subsequently, using aggregation-induced emission luminogen (AIEgen) nanobeads as the tracer for the output signal, the IC₅₀ value of the various PCBs was improved to 6.38-252.1 ng/mL. The limit of detection (LOD) varied from 0.32 to 42.15 ng/mL. Recoveries of 76.90-95.74% and intra-assay coefficients of variation of 8.5-14.4% were obtained with spiked chicken and crab meat samples. Matrix interference was eliminated by dilution, and no false-positive and false-negative results were observed. The developed assay provides a simple, broad-spectrum, and sensitive tool for detecting PCBs, with high-throughput possibilities for large-scale screening of PCBs in food.

The Promise of Aggregation-Induced Emission Luminogens for Detecting COVID-19

The long-term pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) requires sensitive and accurate diagnostic assays to detect severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) virus and SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in infected individuals. Currently, RNA of SARS-CoV-2 virus is mainly detected by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR)-based nucleic acid assays, while SARS-CoV-2 antigen and antibody are identified by immunological assays. Both nucleic acid assays and immunological assays rely on the luminescence signals of specific luminescence probes for qualitative and quantitative detection. The exploration of novel luminescence probes will play a crucial role in improving the detection sensitivity of the assays. As innate probes, aggregation-induced emission (AIE) luminogens (AIEgens) exhibit negligible luminescence in the free state but enhanced luminescence in the aggregated or restricted states. Moreover, AIEgen-based nanoparticles (AIE dots) offer efficient luminescence, good biocompatibility and water solubility, and superior photostability. Both AIEgens and AIE dots have been widely used for high-performance detection of biomolecules and small molecules, chemical/biological imaging, and medical therapeutics. In this review, the availability of AIEgens and AIE dots in nucleic acid assays and immunological assays are enumerated and discussed. By building a bridge between AIE materials and COVID-19, we hope to inspire researchers to use AIE materials as a powerful weapon against COVID-19.

AIEgens: An emerging fluorescent sensing tool to aid food safety and quality control

As a global public health problem, food safety has attracted increasing concern. To minimize the risk exposure of food to harmful ingredients, food quality and safety inspection that covers the whole process of "from farm to fork" is much desired. Fluorescent sensing is a promising and powerful screening tool for sensing hazardous substances in food and thus plays a crucial role in promoting food safety assurance. However, traditional fluorphores generally suffer the problem of aggregation-caused quenching (ACQ) effect, which limit their application in food quality and safety inspection. In this regard, luminogens with aggregation-induced emission property (AIEgens) showed large potential in food analysis since AIEgens effectively surmount the ACQ effect with much better detection sensitivity, accuracy, and robustness. In this contribution, we review the latest developments of food safety monitoring by AIEgens, which will focus on the molecular design of AIEgens and their sensing principles. Several examples of AIE-based sensing applications for screening food contaminations are highlighted, and future perspectives and challenges in this emerging field are tentatively elaborated. We hope this review can motivate new research ideas and interest to aid food safety and quality control, and facilitate more collaborative endeavors to advance the state-of-the-art sensing developments and reduce actual translational gap between laboratory research and industrial production.

Nanochannel sensor for sensitive and selective adamantanamine detection based on host-guest competition

The abuse of adamantanamine (ADA) and its derivatives as veterinary drugs in the poultry industry could cause severe health problems for humans. It is of great need to develop a rapid, cheap and ultrasensitive method for ADA detection. In this study, a sensitive conical nanochannel sensor was established for the rapid quantitative detection of ADA with the distinctive design of the host-guest competition. The sensor was constructed by functionalizing the nanochannel surface with p-toluidine and was then assembled with Cucurbit [7]uril (CB [7]). When ADA is added, it could occupy the cavity of CB [7] due to the host-guest competition and makes CB [7] to release from the CB [7]-p-toluidine complex, resulting in a distinct change of hydrophobicity of the nanochannel, which could be determined by the ionic current. Under the optimal conditions, the strategy permitted sensitive detection of ADA in a linear range of 10-1000 nM. The nanochannel based ADA sensing platform showed both high sensitivity and excellent reproducibility and the limit of detection was 4.54 nM. For the first time, the rapid and sensitive recognition of an illegal medicine was realized based on the host-guest competition method with the nanochannel system and the principle and feasibility of this method were described at length. This strategy provides a simple, reliable, and effective way to apply host-guest system in the development of nanochannel sensor for small-molecule drug detection.

Colloidal gold-based immunochromatographic strip assay for the rapid detection of bacitracin zinc in milk

In this study, a murine monoclonal antibody (mAb) of 6D2-G10 against bacitracin zinc (BAC) was produced and applied to an immunochromatographic strip (ICS) for the initial detection of BAC in milk. The ICS with a cut-off value of 25 ng/mL could be perceived by the naked eye within 10 min. With the assist of the strip reader, the limit of detection (LOD) was measured as 0.82 ng/mL, the half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) was recorded as 3.16 ng/mL, and the linear detection range was from 0.97 to 10.30 ng/mL. The recoveries ranged from 87.7% to 96.0% with the highest coefficient of variation (CV) of 9.1% in the intra-assay and from 84.3% to 90.2% with the highest CV of 10.7% in the inter-assay. In short, the established ICS provided a serviceable analytical tool for qualitatively and quantitatively monitoring BAC in milk.

Ratiometric fluorescent sensing system for drug residue analysis: Highly sensitive immunosensor using dual-emission quantum dots hybrid and compact smartphone based-device

Immunoassays such as the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) are utilized extensively for detecting protein biomarkers and small molecules in healthcare, environmental monitoring, and food analysis. Unfortunately, the current strategies for immunoassays often require sophisticated apparatus such as a microplate reader, which might not be available in resource-limited areas. To mitigate this problem, we designed a compact smartphone based-device and a multicolor response immunosensor. First, we designed a compact and cost-effective 3D-printed attachment, where a light-emitting diode was used as a light excitation source and a smartphone captured the fluorescent emission signals. Second, by combining quantum dots hybrid and chemical redox reaction, multiple color responses were displayed in the presence of the analyte at different concentrations. Third, solutions with distinct tonality could be readily distinguished by the naked eye and they were suitable for quantitative analysis using the hue-saturation-lightness color space based on a smartphone application. The versatility of the proposed sensing system was demonstrated by implementing an indirect competitive ELISA for analyzing trace drug residues in foodstuffs. The multicolor response of this sensing strategy allows us to visually quantify drug residues in foodstuffs. Moreover, the smartphone-based immunosensor can assess the exact concentration of the analyte by using a self-designed mobile application. The proposed assay provides a highly sensitive performance that the limit of detection was 0.37 ng/mL by visual detection and 0.057 ng/mL using the compact device. Due to its advantages in terms of portability, straightforward visual detection, high sensitivity, and cost effectiveness, the proposed immunosensor has great potential for applications in areas without access to laboratories or expensive infrastructure.