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Yang Y, Xie S, He F, Xu Y, Wang Z, Ihsan A, Wang X. Recent development and fighting strategies for lincosamide antibiotic resistance. Clin Microbiol Rev 2024; 37:e0016123. [PMID: 38634634 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00161-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/19/2024] Open
Abstract
SUMMARYLincosamides constitute an important class of antibiotics used against a wide range of pathogens, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. However, due to the misuse of lincosamide and co-selection pressure, the resistance to lincosamide has become a serious concern. It is urgently needed to carefully understand the phenomenon and mechanism of lincosamide resistance to effectively prevent and control lincosamide resistance. To date, six mobile lincosamide resistance classes, including lnu, cfr, erm, vga, lsa, and sal, have been identified. These lincosamide resistance genes are frequently found on mobile genetic elements (MGEs), such as plasmids, transposons, integrative and conjugative elements, genomic islands, and prophages. Additionally, MGEs harbor the genes that confer resistance not only to antimicrobial agents of other classes but also to metals and biocides. The ultimate purpose of discovering and summarizing bacterial resistance is to prevent, control, and combat resistance effectively. This review highlights four promising strategies, including chemical modification of antibiotics, the development of antimicrobial peptides, the initiation of bacterial self-destruct program, and antimicrobial stewardship, to fight against resistance and safeguard global health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingying Yang
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU), Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Shiyu Xie
- MOA Laboratory for Risk Assessment of Quality and Safety of Livestock and Poultry Products, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Fangjing He
- MOA Laboratory for Risk Assessment of Quality and Safety of Livestock and Poultry Products, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Yindi Xu
- Institute of Animal Husbandry Research, Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Zhifang Wang
- Institute of Animal Husbandry Research, Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Awais Ihsan
- Department of Biosciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Sahiwal campus, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Xu Wang
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU), Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- MOA Laboratory for Risk Assessment of Quality and Safety of Livestock and Poultry Products, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
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Bechtold V, Petzl W, Huber-Schlenstedt R, Gangl A, Sorge US. Antimicrobial resistance of Streptococcus dysgalactiae, Streptococcus agalactiae, and Streptococcus canis in quarter milk samples from Bavaria, Southern Germany, between 2012 and 2022. J Dairy Sci 2024:S0022-0302(24)00840-3. [PMID: 38825124 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2023-24555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/04/2024]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to analyze the in vitro antimicrobial resistance (AMR) of Streptococcus (Sc.) dysgalactiae, Sc. agalactiae, and Sc. canis over a 10-year period from 2012 to 2022 against the most commonly used antimicrobial agents. For this purpose, all quarter milk samples (QMS) submitted to the milk laboratory of the Bavarian Animal Health Service (TGD) were analyzed. Each QMS was tested using the California Mastitis Test (CMT) and categorized as negative (N), subclinical (S), or clinical (C) mastitis if the milk character was abnormal. Samples with Sc. dysgalactiae, Sc. agalactiae, or Sc. canis were included and a subset of isolates were further tested for in vitro antimicrobial resistance by breakpoint analysis with broth microdilution. Sc. dysgalactiae (61%, n = 65,750) was the most abundant pathogen among those 3 species, followed by Sc. agalactiae (28%, n = 30,486), and Sc. canis (11%, n = 11,336). All 3 species showed the highest resistance to the same 4 antimicrobial agents: erythromycin, marbofloxacin, pirlimycin, and cefalexin/kanamycin with varying degrees of resistance. Throughout the study period, Sc. dysgalactiae, Sc. agalactiae, and Sc. canis were largely susceptible to the remaining antimicrobial agents tested (penicillin, amoxicillin-clavulanate, oxacillin, cefazolin, cefoperazone, cefquinome). Only less than 14% of isolates of Sc. dysgalactiae and Sc. canis were resistant against any of the antimicrobials tested. Sc. agalactiae was the species with the highest percentage of resistant isolates. While the percentage of resistant isolates from Sc. canis and Sc. dysgalactiae decreased, the percentage of resistant Sc. agalactiae isolates increased since 2017. In summary, most isolates were not resistant to the most commonly used antimicrobial agents for mastitis therapy, including β-lactam antibiotics and penicillin should remain the first-choice therapy against streptococcal mastitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Bechtold
- Department of Udder Health and Milk Quality, Bavarian Animal Health Services, 85586 Poing, Germany; Clinic for Ruminants with Ambulatory and Herd Health Services, Centre for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig Maximilians University Munich, 85764 Oberschleissheim, Germany.
| | - W Petzl
- Clinic for Ruminants with Ambulatory and Herd Health Services, Centre for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig Maximilians University Munich, 85764 Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - R Huber-Schlenstedt
- Department of Udder Health and Milk Quality, Bavarian Animal Health Services, 85586 Poing, Germany
| | - A Gangl
- Department of Udder Health and Milk Quality, Bavarian Animal Health Services, 85586 Poing, Germany
| | - U S Sorge
- Department of Udder Health and Milk Quality, Bavarian Animal Health Services, 85586 Poing, Germany
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de Oliveira LMA, Simões LC, Crestani C, Costa NS, Pantoja JCDF, Rabello RF, Teixeira LM, Khan UB, Bentley S, Jamrozy D, Pinto TDCA, Zadoks RN. Long-Term Co-Circulation of Host-Specialist and Host-Generalist Lineages of Group B Streptococcus in Brazilian Dairy Cattle with Heterogeneous Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles. Antibiotics (Basel) 2024; 13:389. [PMID: 38786118 PMCID: PMC11117364 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics13050389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2024] [Revised: 04/20/2024] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Group B Streptococcus (GBS) is a major cause of contagious bovine mastitis (CBM) in Brazil. The GBS population is composed of host-generalist and host-specialist lineages, which may differ in antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and zoonotic potential, and the surveillance of bovine GBS is crucial to developing effective CBM control and prevention measures. Here, we investigated bovine GBS isolates (n = 156) collected in Brazil between 1987 and 2021 using phenotypic testing and whole-genome sequencing to uncover the molecular epidemiology of bovine GBS. Clonal complex (CC) 61/67 was the predominant clade in the 20th century; however, it was replaced by CC91, with which it shares a most common recent ancestor, in the 21st century, despite the higher prevalence of AMR in CC61/67 than in CC91, and high selection pressure for AMR from indiscriminate antimicrobial use in the Brazilian dairy industry. CC103 also emerged as a dominant CC in the 21st century, and a considerable proportion of herds had two or more GBS strains, suggesting poor biosecurity and within-herd evolution due to the chronic nature of CBM problems. The majority of bovine GBS belonged to serotype Ia or III, which was strongly correlated with CCs. Ninety-three isolates were resistant to tetracycline (≥8 μg/mL; tetO = 57, tetM = 34 or both = 2) and forty-four were resistant to erythromycin (2.0 to >4 μg/mL; ermA = 1, ermB = 38, mechanism unidentified n = 5). Only three isolates were non-susceptible to penicillin (≥8.0 μg/mL), providing opportunities for improved antimicrobial stewardship through the use of narrow-spectrum antimicrobials for the treatment of dairy cattle. The common bovine GBS clades detected in this study have rarely been reported in humans, suggesting limited risk of interspecies transmission of GBS in Brazil. This study provides new data to support improvements to CBM and AMR control, bovine GBS vaccine design, and the management of public health risks posed by bovine GBS in Brazil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Maria Andrade de Oliveira
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil; (L.C.S.); (N.S.C.); (L.M.T.); (T.d.C.A.P.)
| | - Leandro Correia Simões
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil; (L.C.S.); (N.S.C.); (L.M.T.); (T.d.C.A.P.)
| | | | - Natália Silva Costa
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil; (L.C.S.); (N.S.C.); (L.M.T.); (T.d.C.A.P.)
| | | | | | - Lucia Martins Teixeira
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil; (L.C.S.); (N.S.C.); (L.M.T.); (T.d.C.A.P.)
| | - Uzma Basit Khan
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, UK; (U.B.K.); (S.B.); (D.J.)
| | - Stephen Bentley
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, UK; (U.B.K.); (S.B.); (D.J.)
| | - Dorota Jamrozy
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, UK; (U.B.K.); (S.B.); (D.J.)
| | - Tatiana de Castro Abreu Pinto
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil; (L.C.S.); (N.S.C.); (L.M.T.); (T.d.C.A.P.)
| | - Ruth N. Zadoks
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Camden, NSW 2570, Australia
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Cai X, Yang S, Peng Y, Tan K, Xu P, Wu Z, Kwan KY, Jian J. Regulation of PhoB on biofilm formation and hemolysin gene hlyA and ciaR of Streptococcus agalactiae. Vet Microbiol 2024; 289:109961. [PMID: 38147806 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2023.109961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2023] [Revised: 12/08/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 12/28/2023]
Abstract
PhoB is a response regulator protein that plays a key role in the PhoBR two-component signal transduction system. In this study, we used transcriptome and proteomics techniques to evaluate the detect the gene network regulated by PhoB of Streptococcus agalactiae. The results showed that expression of biofilm formation and virulence-related genes were changed after phoB deficiency. Crystal violet and CLSM assay confirmed that the deletion of the phoB increased the thickness of S. agalactiae biofilm. The results of lacZ reporter and the bacterial one-hybridization method showed that PhoB could directly bind to the promoter regions of hemolysin A and ciaR genes but not to the promoter regions of cylE and hemolysin III. Through the construction of an 18-base pair deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) random fragment library and the bacterial one-hybridization system, it was found that the conservative sequence of PhoB binding was TTGGAGAA(G/T). Our research has uncovered the virulence potential of the PhoBR two-component system of S. agalactiae. The findings of this study provide the theoretical foundation for in-depth research on the pathogenic mechanism of S. agalactiae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohui Cai
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Beibu Gulf Marine Biodiversity Conservation, Ocean College, Beibu Gulf University, Qinzhou 535011, China
| | - Shaoyu Yang
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Beibu Gulf Marine Biodiversity Conservation, Ocean College, Beibu Gulf University, Qinzhou 535011, China
| | - Yinhui Peng
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Beibu Gulf Marine Biodiversity Conservation, Ocean College, Beibu Gulf University, Qinzhou 535011, China; College of Fishery, Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Biology and Epidemiology for Aquatic Economic Animal, Key Laboratory of Control for Disease of Aquatic Animals of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory, Zhanjiang 524088, China
| | - Kianann Tan
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Beibu Gulf Marine Biodiversity Conservation, Ocean College, Beibu Gulf University, Qinzhou 535011, China
| | - Peng Xu
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Beibu Gulf Marine Biodiversity Conservation, Ocean College, Beibu Gulf University, Qinzhou 535011, China
| | - Zaohe Wu
- College of Fishery, Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Biology and Epidemiology for Aquatic Economic Animal, Key Laboratory of Control for Disease of Aquatic Animals of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory, Zhanjiang 524088, China
| | - Kit Yue Kwan
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Beibu Gulf Marine Biodiversity Conservation, Ocean College, Beibu Gulf University, Qinzhou 535011, China.
| | - Jichang Jian
- College of Fishery, Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Biology and Epidemiology for Aquatic Economic Animal, Key Laboratory of Control for Disease of Aquatic Animals of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory, Zhanjiang 524088, China.
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Wataradee S, Boonserm T, Samngamnim S, Ajariyakhajorn K. Characterization of Virulence Factors and Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Streptococcus agalactiae Associated with Bovine Mastitis Cases in Thailand. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:447. [PMID: 38338090 PMCID: PMC10854646 DOI: 10.3390/ani14030447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Revised: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus agalactiae is a contagious pathogen that causes bovine mastitis. The ability of S. agalactiae to cause widespread mastitis relies on bacterial virulence factors. In this study, we detected 10 virulence determinants associated with mastitis pathogenicity using conventional PCR. The antimicrobial susceptibility of 100 S. agalactiae isolates from 13 Thai dairy herds was assessed using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion susceptibility test. All strains had at least three virulence factors responsible for invasion, adhesion, and infection (fbsB, bibA, and cfb, respectively). The predominant virulent profile of S. agalactiae strains revealed the presence of fbsA, fbsB, bibA, cfb, and cyl (n = 96). Most strains were sensitive to penicillin, ampicillin, amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, cefotaxime, ceftiofur, erythromycin, sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim, and vancomycin. However, all strains were resistant to aminoglycosides, including kanamycin and gentamicin attributed to the unnecessary antimicrobial use. Furthermore, we identified seven multidrug resistant (MDR) S. agalactiae strains among four dairy herds, of which, two were vancomycin resistant. Our study provides profiles for virulence factors and antimicrobial susceptibility, which are beneficial for the clinical monitoring, prevention, and control of bovine mastitis in dairy cattle in Thailand. Moreover, we emphasize the need for awareness regarding the judicious use of antimicrobials on dairy farms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Kittisak Ajariyakhajorn
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (S.W.); (T.B.); (S.S.)
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Zhou G, Zhang W, Wen H, Su Q, Hao Z, Liu J, Gao Y, Zhang H, Ge B, Tong C, He X, Wang X. Esculetin improves murine mastitis induced by streptococcus isolated from bovine mammary glands by inhibiting NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways. Microb Pathog 2023; 185:106393. [PMID: 37852550 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2023.106393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Revised: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/20/2023]
Abstract
Cow mastitis, caused by Streptococcus infection of the mammary glands, is a common clinical disease that can lead to decreased milk quality and threaten animal welfare and performance. Esculetin (ESC) is a coumarin with anti-inflammatory and anti-asthmatic effects. However, whether ESC has therapeutic effects on mastitis remains unexplored. This study was conducted to investigate the protective effect of ESC against murine mastitis caused by Streptococcus isolated from bovine mammary glands and elucidate the underlying mechanisms. Streptococcus uberis was used to construct a mouse model of mastitis. The results showed that the mice exhibited edema and thickening of the acinar wall with inflammatory infiltration after S. uberis treatment. Intraperitoneal injection of ESC significantly reduced inflammatory cell infiltration, restored normal physiological function, and inhibited the production of the inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α. Quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and Western blot analysis revealed that ESC reduced P38 phosphorylation, further inhibited the influence of mammary Streptococcus on cytoplasmic translocation of nuclear factor-κB (P65), and inhibited the transcriptional activation of P65, thus inhibiting the generation of inflammatory cells. Collectively, ESC may inhibit mitogen-activated protein kinase and nuclear factor-κB, thereby highlighting its potential for the treatment and prevention of mastitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- GuangWei Zhou
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450000, Henan province, China
| | - WuHao Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450000, Henan province, China
| | - HaoJie Wen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450000, Henan province, China
| | - Qing Su
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450000, Henan province, China
| | - ZhongHua Hao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450000, Henan province, China
| | - JingJing Liu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450000, Henan province, China
| | - YingKui Gao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450000, Henan province, China
| | - HuaQiang Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450000, Henan province, China
| | - Baoyan Ge
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450000, Henan province, China
| | - Chao Tong
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450000, Henan province, China; International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China.
| | - XiuYuan He
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450000, Henan province, China; International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China.
| | - XueBing Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450000, Henan province, China; International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Animal Pathogens and Biosafety, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China.
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Alessandri G, Sangalli E, Facchi M, Fontana F, Mancabelli L, Donofrio G, Ventura M. Metataxonomic analysis of milk microbiota in the bovine subclinical mastitis. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2023; 99:fiad136. [PMID: 37880979 DOI: 10.1093/femsec/fiad136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Revised: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Subclinical mastitis is one of the most widespread diseases affecting dairy herds with detrimental effects on animal health, milk productivity, and quality. Despite its multifactorial nature, the presence of pathogenic bacteria is regarded one of the main drivers of subclinical mastitis, causing a disruption of the homeostasis of the bovine milk microbial community. However, bovine milk microbiota alterations associated with subclinical mastitis still represents a largely unexplored research area. Therefore, the species-level milk microbiota of a total of 75 milk samples, collected from both healthy and subclinical mastitis-affected cows from two different stables, was deeply profiled through an ITS, rather than a traditional, and less informative, 16S rRNA gene microbial profiling. Surprisingly, the present pilot study not only revealed that subclinical mastitis is characterized by a reduced biodiversity of the bovine milk microbiota, but also that this disease does not induce standard alterations of the milk microbial community across stables. In addition, a flow cytometry-based total bacterial cell enumeration highlighted that subclinical mastitis is accompanied by a significant increment in the number of milk microbial cells. Furthermore, the combination of the metagenomic and flow cytometry approaches allowed to identify different potential microbial marker strictly correlated with subclinical mastitis across stables.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Alessandri
- Laboratory of Probiogenomics, Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences, and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 11a, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Elena Sangalli
- Department of Medical-Veterinary Science, University of Parma, Strada del Taglio 10, 43126 Parma, Italy
| | - Mario Facchi
- DVM Bovine Practitioner "Bergamo Veterinari" Group, 24124 Bergamo, Italy
| | - Federico Fontana
- Laboratory of Probiogenomics, Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences, and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 11a, 43124 Parma, Italy
- GenProbio srl, Via Nazario Sauro 3, 43121 Parma, Italy
| | - Leonardo Mancabelli
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Via Volturno 39, 43125 Parma, Italy
- Microbiome Research Hub, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 11a, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Gaetano Donofrio
- Department of Medical-Veterinary Science, University of Parma, Strada del Taglio 10, 43126 Parma, Italy
| | - Marco Ventura
- Laboratory of Probiogenomics, Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences, and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 11a, 43124 Parma, Italy
- Microbiome Research Hub, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 11a, 43124 Parma, Italy
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Pathak RK, Kim JM. Identification of histidine kinase inhibitors through screening of natural compounds to combat mastitis caused by Streptococcus agalactiae in dairy cattle. J Biol Eng 2023; 17:59. [PMID: 37752501 PMCID: PMC10523694 DOI: 10.1186/s13036-023-00378-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mastitis poses a major threat to dairy farms globally; it results in reduced milk production, increased treatment costs, untimely compromised genetic potential, animal deaths, and economic losses. Streptococcus agalactiae is a highly virulent bacteria that cause mastitis. The administration of antibiotics for the treatment of this infection is not advised due to concerns about the emergence of antibiotic resistance and potential adverse effects on human health. Thus, there is a critical need to identify new therapeutic approaches to combat mastitis. One promising target for the development of antibacterial therapies is the transmembrane histidine kinase of bacteria, which plays a key role in signal transduction pathways, secretion systems, virulence, and antibiotic resistance. RESULTS In this study, we aimed to identify novel natural compounds that can inhibit transmembrane histidine kinase. To achieve this goal, we conducted a virtual screening of 224,205 natural compounds, selecting the top ten based on their lowest binding energy and favorable protein-ligand interactions. Furthermore, molecular docking of eight selected antibiotics and five histidine kinase inhibitors with transmembrane histidine kinase was performed to evaluate the binding energy with respect to top-screened natural compounds. We also analyzed the ADMET properties of these compounds to assess their drug-likeness. The top two compounds (ZINC000085569031 and ZINC000257435291) and top-screened antibiotics (Tetracycline) that demonstrated a strong binding affinity were subjected to molecular dynamics simulations (100 ns), free energy landscape, and binding free energy calculations using the MM-PBSA method. CONCLUSION Our results suggest that the selected natural compounds have the potential to serve as effective inhibitors of transmembrane histidine kinase and can be utilized for the development of novel antibacterial veterinary medicine for mastitis after further validation through clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajesh Kumar Pathak
- Department of Animal Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong-si, Gyeonggi-do, 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Jun-Mo Kim
- Department of Animal Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong-si, Gyeonggi-do, 17546, Republic of Korea.
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Ma X, Chen H, Wang F, Wang S, Wu Y, Ma X, Wei Y, Shao W, Zhao Y. Molecular characterisation and antimicrobial resistance of Streptococcus agalactiae isolates from dairy farms in China. J Vet Res 2023; 67:161-167. [PMID: 38143824 PMCID: PMC10740378 DOI: 10.2478/jvetres-2023-0027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2023] [Indexed: 12/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Streptococcus agalactiae (S. agalactiae) is a pathogen causing bovine mastitis that results in considerable economic losses in the livestock sector. To understand the distribution and drug resistance characteristics of S. agalactiae from dairy cow mastitis cases in China, multilocus sequence typing (MLST) was carried out and the serotypes and drug resistance characteristics of the bacteria in the region were analysed. Material and Methods A total of 21 strains of bovine S. agalactiae were characterised based on MLST, molecular serotyping, antimicrobial susceptibility testing, and the presence of drug resistance genes. Results The serotypes were mainly Ia and II, accounting for 47.6% and 42.9% of all serotypes, respectively. Five sequence types (STs) were identified through MLST. The ST103 and ST1878 strains were predominant, with rates of 52.4% and 28.6%, respectively. The latter is a novel, previously uncharacterised sequence type. More than 90% of S. agalactiae strains were susceptible to penicillin, oxacillin, cephalothin, ceftiofur, gentamicin, florfenicol and sulfamethoxazole. The bacteria showed high resistance to tetracycline (85.7%), clindamycin (52.1%) and erythromycin (47.6%). Resistant genes were detected by PCR, the result of which showed that 47.6%, 33.3% and 38.1% of isolates carried the tet(M), tet(O) and erm(B) genes, respectively. Conclusion The results of this study indicate that S. agalactiae show a high level of antimicrobial resistance. It is necessary to monitor the pathogens of mastitis to prevent the transmission of these bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojiao Ma
- College of Animal Science Xinjiang Agriculture University, Urumqi830052, P. R. China
- Institute of Quality Standards & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Xinjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Urumqi830091, P. R. China
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs-Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products, Urumqi830091, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety of Xinjiang, Urumqi830091, P. R. China
| | - He Chen
- Institute of Quality Standards & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Xinjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Urumqi830091, P. R. China
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs-Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products, Urumqi830091, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety of Xinjiang, Urumqi830091, P. R. China
| | - Fulan Wang
- Institute of Quality Standards & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Xinjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Urumqi830091, P. R. China
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs-Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products, Urumqi830091, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety of Xinjiang, Urumqi830091, P. R. China
| | - Shuai Wang
- Institute of Quality Standards & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Xinjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Urumqi830091, P. R. China
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs-Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products, Urumqi830091, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety of Xinjiang, Urumqi830091, P. R. China
| | - Yating Wu
- Institute of Quality Standards & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Xinjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Urumqi830091, P. R. China
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs-Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products, Urumqi830091, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety of Xinjiang, Urumqi830091, P. R. China
| | - Xianlan Ma
- Institute of Quality Standards & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Xinjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Urumqi830091, P. R. China
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs-Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products, Urumqi830091, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety of Xinjiang, Urumqi830091, P. R. China
| | - Yong Wei
- Xinjiang Tian’ao Animal Husbandry Co., Ltd, Ili835000, P. R. China
| | - Wei Shao
- College of Animal Science Xinjiang Agriculture University, Urumqi830052, P. R. China
| | - Yankun Zhao
- Institute of Quality Standards & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Xinjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Urumqi830091, P. R. China
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs-Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products, Urumqi830091, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety of Xinjiang, Urumqi830091, P. R. China
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10
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Shi H, Zhou M, Zhang Z, Hu Y, Song S, Hui R, Wang L, Li G, Yao L. Molecular epidemiology, drug resistance, and virulence gene analysis of Streptococcus agalactiae isolates from dairy goats in backyard farms in China. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 12:1049167. [PMID: 36699728 PMCID: PMC9868259 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.1049167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus agalactiae infections may lead to clinical or subclinical mastitis in dairy animals when it invades the mammary gland. In this study, 51 S. agalactiae strains were isolated from 305 milk samples that were collected from goats with mastitis in 13 provinces of China. The antimicrobial resistance of S. agalactiae was determined by disk diffusion methods against 18 antibiotics from six classes. In addition, multilocus sequence typing (MLST), and the presence of resistance and virulence genes was determined by PCR analysis. Seven sequence types in five clonal complexes were identified according to MLST; CC103 and CC67 strains were predominant, with rates of 45.1% and 39.2%, respectively. All isolates (100%) were multiresistant to three or more antimicrobial agents. S. agalactiae isolates had a 100% resistance rate to penicillin, oxacillin, and amoxicillin, followed by doxycycline (82.4%), tetracycline (76.5%), and amikacin (74.5%). The lowest resistance was observed for ciprofloxacin (29.4%), which varied in five different regions. The detection rates of six classes of antimicrobial-related genes were calculated as follows: 33 (64.7%) for β-lactam-related resistance gene, 12 (23.5%) for tetracyclines, 11 (21.6%) for quinolone-related resistance genes, 10 (19.6%) for aminoglycosides, 7 (13.7%) for macrolides (ermA, ermB, and mefA), and 3 (5.9%) for lincosamide (lnu(B)). Regarding virulence genes, profile 1 (bca cfb-cspA-cylE-hylB-bibA-pavA-fbsA-fbsB) was the most prevalent, with a detection rate of 54.9%. This work provides a primary source related to the molecular epidemiology of S. agalactiae in dairy goat herds in China and will aid in the clinical treatment, prevention, and control of mastitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongfei Shi
- Henan Provincial Engineering and Technology Center of Animal Disease Diagnosis and Integrated Control, Henan Provincial Engineering Laboratory of Insects Bio-reactor, Nanyang Normal University, Nanyang, China,*Correspondence: Hongfei Shi, ; Lunguang Yao,
| | - Mengxiao Zhou
- Henan Provincial Engineering and Technology Center of Animal Disease Diagnosis and Integrated Control, Henan Provincial Engineering Laboratory of Insects Bio-reactor, Nanyang Normal University, Nanyang, China
| | - Zhengtian Zhang
- Henan Provincial Engineering and Technology Center of Animal Disease Diagnosis and Integrated Control, Henan Provincial Engineering Laboratory of Insects Bio-reactor, Nanyang Normal University, Nanyang, China
| | - Yun Hu
- College of Animal Husbandry and Medical Engineering, Nanyang Vocational College of Agriculture, Nanyang, China
| | - Shiyang Song
- Animal Husbandry and Fishery Department, Heilongjiang State 853 Farm Limited Company, Shuangyashan, China
| | - Ruiqing Hui
- Henan Provincial Engineering and Technology Center of Animal Disease Diagnosis and Integrated Control, Henan Provincial Engineering Laboratory of Insects Bio-reactor, Nanyang Normal University, Nanyang, China
| | - Long Wang
- Henan Provincial Engineering and Technology Center of Animal Disease Diagnosis and Integrated Control, Henan Provincial Engineering Laboratory of Insects Bio-reactor, Nanyang Normal University, Nanyang, China
| | - Guoguang Li
- Henan Provincial Engineering and Technology Center of Animal Disease Diagnosis and Integrated Control, Henan Provincial Engineering Laboratory of Insects Bio-reactor, Nanyang Normal University, Nanyang, China
| | - Lunguang Yao
- Henan Provincial Engineering and Technology Center of Animal Disease Diagnosis and Integrated Control, Henan Provincial Engineering Laboratory of Insects Bio-reactor, Nanyang Normal University, Nanyang, China,*Correspondence: Hongfei Shi, ; Lunguang Yao,
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11
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Naranjo-Lucena A, Slowey R. Invited review: Antimicrobial resistance in bovine mastitis pathogens: A review of genetic determinants and prevalence of resistance in European countries. J Dairy Sci 2023; 106:1-23. [PMID: 36333144 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2022-22267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance is an urgent and growing problem worldwide, both for human and animal health. In the animal health sector actions have been taken as concerns grow regarding the development and spread of antimicrobial resistance. Mastitis is the most common infection in dairy cattle. We aimed to summarize the genetic determinants found in staphylococci, streptococci, and Enterobacteriaceae isolated from mastitic milk samples and provide a comparison of percentage resistance to a variety of antimicrobials in European countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amalia Naranjo-Lucena
- National Reference Laboratory for Antimicrobial Resistance, Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine, Backweston Laboratory Campus, Celbridge, Ireland W23 VW2C.
| | - Rosemarie Slowey
- National Reference Laboratory for Antimicrobial Resistance, Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine, Backweston Laboratory Campus, Celbridge, Ireland W23 VW2C
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12
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Prack McCormick B, Quiroga MP, Álvarez VE, Centrón D, Tittonell P. Antimicrobial resistance dissemination associated with intensive animal production practices in Argentina: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Rev Argent Microbiol 2023; 55:25-42. [PMID: 36137889 DOI: 10.1016/j.ram.2022.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 10/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abuse and misuse of antimicrobial agents has accelerated the spread of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria. The association between antimicrobial-resistant infections in humans and antimicrobial use in agriculture is complex, but well-documented. This study provides a systematic review and meta-analysis of the dissemination of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) to antimicrobials defined as critically important by the WHO, in swine, chicken, and cattle from intensive and extensive production systems in Argentina. We conducted searches in electronic databases (MEDLINE-PubMed, Web of Science, SciELO, the National System of Digital Repositories from Argentina) as well as in the gray literature. Inclusion criteria were epidemiological studies on AMR in the main food-transmitted bacteria, Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., Escherichia coli and Enterococcus spp., and mastitis-causing bacteria, isolated from swine, chicken, dairy and beef cattle from Argentina. This study gives evidence for supporting the hypothesis that AMR of common food-transmitted bacteria in Argentina is reaching alarming levels. Meta-analyses followed by subgroup analyses confirmed the association between the prevalence of AMR and (a) animal species (p<0.01) for streptomycin, ampicillin and tetracycline or (b) the animal production system (p<0.05) for streptomycin, cefotaxime, nalidixic acid, ampicillin and tetracycline. Moreover, swine (0.47 [0.29; 0.66]) and intensive production (0.62 [0.34; 0.83]) showed the highest pooled prevalence of multidrug resistance while dairy (0.056 [0.003; 0.524]) and extensive production (0.107 [0.043; 0.240]) showed the lowest. A research gap regarding beef-cattle from feedlot was identified. Finally, there is an urgent need for political measures meant to coordinate and harmonize AMR surveillance and regulate antimicrobial use in animal production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Prack McCormick
- Universidad Nacional de Lomas de Zamora, Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, RP N˚4 km 2 (1836), Llavallol, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - María P Quiroga
- Laboratorio de Investigaciones en Mecanismos de Resistencia a Antibióticos, Instituto de Investigaciones en Microbiología y Parasitología Médica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (IMPaM, UBA-CONICET), Paraguay 2157 (PC 1121), Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Verónica E Álvarez
- Laboratorio de Investigaciones en Mecanismos de Resistencia a Antibióticos, Instituto de Investigaciones en Microbiología y Parasitología Médica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (IMPaM, UBA-CONICET), Paraguay 2157 (PC 1121), Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Daniela Centrón
- Laboratorio de Investigaciones en Mecanismos de Resistencia a Antibióticos, Instituto de Investigaciones en Microbiología y Parasitología Médica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (IMPaM, UBA-CONICET), Paraguay 2157 (PC 1121), Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Pablo Tittonell
- Agroecology, Environment and Systems Group, Instituto de Investigaciones Forestales y Agropecuarias de Bariloche, Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia Agropecuaria - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (IFAB, INTA-CONICET), Modesta Victoria 4450 - CC 277 (8400), San Carlos de Bariloche, Río Negro, Argentina; Groningen Institute of Evolutionary Life Sciences, Groningen University, PO Box 11103, 9700 CC Groningen, The Netherlands
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13
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Antimicrobial Resistance and Virulence Genes of Streptococcus Agalactiae Isolated from Mastitis Milk Samples in China. J Vet Res 2022; 66:581-590. [PMID: 36846045 PMCID: PMC9944998 DOI: 10.2478/jvetres-2022-0069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Streptococcus agalactiae is an important zoonotic pathogen that affects milk production and quality and poses a threat to public health. Treatment of infections with this bacterium exploits antimicrobials, to which the resistance of S. agalactiae is a growing problem. Addressing the possibility of a correlation between this pathogen's genetic factors for antimicrobial resistance and virulence, this study attempted to identify the relevant genes. Material and Methods Antimicrobial resistance of S. agalactiae isolated from 497 Chinese bovine mastitic milk samples was detected by the broth microdilution method. Eight drug resistance genes and eleven virulence genes were detected using PCR. Results Streptococcus agalactiae was 100% susceptible to rifampicin and vancomycin, 93.33% susceptible to sulfisoxazole and sulfamethoxazole, but 100% resistant to ≥3 of the 16 antimicrobial agents, thereby being multidrug resistant, with resistance to oxacillin, tetracycline, erythromycin, clindamycin, and gentamicin being common. The ermB, ermA and lnuA genes were carried by 73.33%, 66.67% and 60.00% of the strains, respectively. The carriage rates of the glnA, clyE, hylB, bibA, iagA, and fbsA virulence genes were greater than 40%, lmb and bac were not observed in any strain, and glnA+hylB+bibA+iagA+fbsA+clyE combined virulence gene patterns were the most commonly detected. Conclusion Antimicrobial resistance of S. agalactiae is still a great concern for cattle health in China, and multidrug resistance coupled with the high positive rates of this bacterium's strains for virulence genes indicates the importance of S. agalactiae surveillance and susceptibility tests.
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14
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Virulence Profiles and Antimicrobial Resistance of Streptococcus agalactiae Infective and Colonizing Strains from Argentina. Curr Microbiol 2022; 79:392. [DOI: 10.1007/s00284-022-03050-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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15
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Li A, Fang M, Hao D, Wu Q, Qian Y, Xu H, Zhu B. Late-Onset Sepsis in a Premature Infant Mediated by Breast Milk: Mother-to-Infant Transmission of Group B Streptococcus Detected by Whole-Genome Sequencing. Infect Drug Resist 2022; 15:5345-5352. [PMID: 36110126 PMCID: PMC9469938 DOI: 10.2147/idr.s381466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Late-onset group B Streptococcus (LOGBS) sepsis is a cause of infection and death in infants. Infected breast milk has been considered a source of neonatal GBS infection and invasive infection. However, mother-to-infant transmission of GBS detected by the high-resolution diagnostic method is rarely reported. Methods This study describes a low-weight premature infant who developed late-onset GBS septicemia 21 days after birth. GBS strains isolated from the mother’s cervical secretion, the mother’s milk, and the baby’s blood were cultured to identify the source of GBS infection. We further confirmed the GBS isolates through matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS). Finally, we performed whole-genome sequencing (WGS) and phylogenetic analyses on the GBS strains recovered. Results GBS isolates were cultured from the bloodstream of the premature infant and the mother’s milk, respectively. Subsequently, WGS and phylogenetic analyses on three GBS isolates demonstrated that the GBS strain from the infant’s bloodstream was 100% homologous to that from the mother’s breast milk, which had some different gene fragments from the GBS strain from the mother’s cervical secretion. It provided evidence that this infant’s late-onset GBS septicemia originated from his mother’s breast milk instead of the vertical mother-to-infant transmission. Conclusion Through WGS and phylogenetic analysis of the GBS strains, we proved in this study that the late-onset GBS sepsis in a premature infant was derived from his mother’s breast milk. It indicated that WGS diagnosis is an effective tool for infection tracing. Furthermore, this report provides direction for preventing late-onset GBS infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aiyun Li
- Department of Clinical Medicine, The Women's Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Ming Fang
- Institute of Infection Disease Control, Shandong Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Jinan, People's Republic of China
| | - Dongjie Hao
- Department of Clinical Medicine, The Women's Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiaoai Wu
- Department of Clinical Medicine, The Women's Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Yaqi Qian
- Department of Clinical Medicine, The Women's Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Hao Xu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Disease, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China.,Department of Structure and Morphology, Jinan Microecological Biomedicine Shandong Laboratory, Jinan, People's Republic of China
| | - Bo Zhu
- Department of Clinical Medicine, The Women's Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China
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16
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Oliveira LMA, Simões LC, Costa NS, Zadoks RN, Pinto TCA. The landscape of antimicrobial resistance in the neonatal and multi-host pathogen group B Streptococcus: review from a One Health perspective. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:943413. [PMID: 35966683 PMCID: PMC9365930 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.943413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Group B Streptococcus (GBS) stands out as a major agent of pediatric disease in humans, being responsible for 392,000 invasive disease cases and 91,000 deaths in infants each year across the world. Moreover, GBS, also known as Streptococcus agalactiae, is an important agent of infections in animal hosts, notably cattle and fish. GBS population structure is composed of multiple clades that differ in virulence, antimicrobial resistance (AMR), and niche adaptation; however, there is growing evidence of interspecies transmission, both from evolutionary analysis and from disease investigations. The prevention of GBS infections through vaccination is desirable in humans as well as animals because it reduces the burden of GBS disease and reduces our reliance on antimicrobials, and the risk of adverse reactions or selection for AMR. In this perspective article, we navigate through the landscape of AMR in the pediatric and multi-host pathogen GBS under the One Health perspective and discuss the use of antimicrobials to control GBS disease, the evolution of AMR in the GBS population, and the future perspectives of resistant GBS infections in the post-pandemic era.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura M. A. Oliveira
- Departamento de Microbiologia Médica, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
- *Correspondence: Laura M. A. Oliveira,
| | - Leandro C. Simões
- Departamento de Microbiologia Médica, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Natalia S. Costa
- Departamento de Microbiologia Médica, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Ruth N. Zadoks
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Camden, NSW, Australia
| | - Tatiana C. A. Pinto
- Departamento de Microbiologia Médica, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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17
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Virulence Factor Genes and Cytotoxicity of Streptococcus agalactiae Isolated from Bovine Mastitis in Poland. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0222421. [PMID: 35608349 PMCID: PMC9241884 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.02224-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus agalactiae can produce a wide variety of virulence factors, including toxins and proteins which facilitate adhesion to and colonization and invasion of the host cells. There are few reports on the characteristics of field isolates from bovine mastitis in Poland. Thus, the aim of this study was to determine the occurrence of types of hemolysis on blood agar, virulence factor genes, and cytotoxicity of S. agalactiae isolates derived from cows with mastitis across Poland. The study included 68 isolates. Virulence genes were tested using standard PCR, and cytotoxicity was determined using methylthiazol tetrazolium (MTT) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) tests. Among the tested isolates, 89.7% were β-hemolytic, 8.8% γ-hemolytic, and 1.5% alpha-hemolytic. The only genes detected in all isolates were the cfb, cspA, hylB, and sip genes. Cytotoxicity assessment based on the LDH test revealed that isolates were cytotoxic only to Vero cells. However, according to the results obtained from the MTT test, more than half of the isolates exhibited low cytotoxicity to both SK and Vero cells, whereas the other isolates showed moderate or no cytotoxicity to both cell lines. Our research confirms the prevalence of various virulence genes in S. agalactiae isolated from Polish dairy herds, which have previously been found in isolates recovered from human and animal infections. For the first time, the presence of bac- and scpB-positive isolates of S. agalactiae was determined in Polish dairy cattle, and the cytotoxicity of bovine isolates was assessed. IMPORTANCE We believe that this manuscript is one of the few reports on the characteristics of field S. agalactiae isolates derived from cases of bovine mastitis in cows in Poland in terms of the occurrence of virulence genes and cytotoxicity. For the first time, the presence of bac- and scpB-positive isolates of S. agalactiae was determined in Polish dairy cattle, and the cytotoxicity of bovine isolates was assessed.
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18
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Han G, Zhang B, Luo Z, Lu B, Luo Z, Zhang J, Wang Y, Luo Y, Yang Z, Shen L, Yu S, Cao S, Yao X. Molecular typing and prevalence of antibiotic resistance and virulence genes in Streptococcus agalactiae isolated from Chinese dairy cows with clinical mastitis. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0268262. [PMID: 35522690 PMCID: PMC9075616 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0268262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Bovine mastitis is a common disease occurring in dairy farms and can be caused by more than 150 species of pathogenic bacteria. One of the most common causative organisms is Streptococcus agalactiae, which is also potentially harmful to humans and aquatic animals. At present, research on S. agalactiae in China is mostly concentrated in the northern region, with limited research in the southeastern and southwestern regions. In this study, a total of 313 clinical mastitis samples from large-scale dairy farms in five regions of Sichuan were collected for isolation of S. agalactiae. The epidemiological distribution of S. agalactiae was inferred by serotyping isolates with multiplex polymerase chain reaction. Susceptibility testing and drug resistance genes were detected to guide the clinical use of antibiotics. Virulence genes were also detected to deduce the pathogenicity of S. agalactiae in Sichuan Province. One hundred and five strains of S. agalactiae (33.6%) were isolated according to phenotypic features, biochemical characteristics, and 16S rRNA sequencing. Serotype multiplex polymerase chain reaction analysis showed that all isolates were of type Ia. The isolates were up to 100% sensitive to aminoglycosides (kanamycin, gentamicin, neomycin, and tobramycin), and the resistance rate to β-lactams (penicillin, amoxicillin, ceftazidime, and piperacillin) was up to 98.1%. The TEM gene (β-lactam-resistant) was detected in all isolates, which was in accordance with a drug-resistant phenotype. Analysis of virulence genes showed that all isolates harbored the cfb, cylE, fbsA, fbsB, hylB, and α-enolase genes and none harbored bac or lmb. These data could aid in the prevention and control of mastitis and improve our understanding of epidemiological trends in dairy cows infected with S. agalactiae in Sichuan Province.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangli Han
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Baohai Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Zidan Luo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Biao Lu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Zhengzhong Luo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Jieru Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Yin Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Yan Luo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Zexiao Yang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Liuhong Shen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Shumin Yu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Suizhong Cao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- * E-mail: (SC); (XY)
| | - Xueping Yao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- * E-mail: (SC); (XY)
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19
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Wu Y, Yang N, Mao R, Hao Y, Teng D, Wang J. In Vitro Pharmacodynamics and Bactericidal Mechanism of Fungal Defensin-Derived Peptides NZX and P2 against Streptococcus agalactiae. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10050881. [PMID: 35630326 PMCID: PMC9142981 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10050881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2022] [Revised: 04/09/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: Based on the hazard of Streptococcus agalactiae to human and animal health and the increasing drug resistance, it is urgent to develop new antimicrobial agents with high bactericidal activity and low drug resistance against S. agalactiae. This study aims to investigate in vitro pharmacodynamics and bactericidal mechanism of fungal defensin-derived peptides NZX and P2 against S. agalactiae. (2) Methods: Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and mutant prevention concentration (MPC) were determined by broth dilution method and AGAR plate dilution method. Cell membrane integrity was determined by flow cytometer. Cell morphological changes were observed by scanning electron microscope (SEM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM). (3) Results: MIC values (NZX: 0.11 μM, P2: 0.91 μM) and MPC (NZX: 1.82 μM) showed their higher antibacterial activity and stronger inhibition ability of drug resistance mutation. The bactericidal mechanism was elucidated that P2 caused S. agalactiae ACCC 61733 cells to deform, bound to the cell wall, and perturbed cell membrane, resulting in K+ leakage, membrane hyperpolarization, ATP release, and reduced cell contents. Compared with P2, NZX focuses on the cell wall, and it bound to the cell wall causing cells boundary disappearance. (4) Conclusion: NZX and P2 are promising antimicrobial agents for streptococcicosis treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yankang Wu
- Gene Engineering Laboratory, Feed Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China; (Y.W.); (N.Y.); (R.M.); (Y.H.)
- Key Laboratory of Feed Biotechnology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Na Yang
- Gene Engineering Laboratory, Feed Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China; (Y.W.); (N.Y.); (R.M.); (Y.H.)
- Key Laboratory of Feed Biotechnology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Ruoyu Mao
- Gene Engineering Laboratory, Feed Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China; (Y.W.); (N.Y.); (R.M.); (Y.H.)
- Key Laboratory of Feed Biotechnology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Ya Hao
- Gene Engineering Laboratory, Feed Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China; (Y.W.); (N.Y.); (R.M.); (Y.H.)
- Key Laboratory of Feed Biotechnology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Da Teng
- Gene Engineering Laboratory, Feed Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China; (Y.W.); (N.Y.); (R.M.); (Y.H.)
- Key Laboratory of Feed Biotechnology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing 100081, China
- Correspondence: (D.T.); (J.W.)
| | - Jianhua Wang
- Gene Engineering Laboratory, Feed Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China; (Y.W.); (N.Y.); (R.M.); (Y.H.)
- Key Laboratory of Feed Biotechnology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing 100081, China
- Correspondence: (D.T.); (J.W.)
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Palacios-Saucedo GDC, Rivera-Morales LG, Vázquez-Guillén JM, Caballero-Trejo A, Mellado-García MC, Flores-Flores AS, González-Navarro JA, Herrera-Rivera CG, Osuna-Rosales LE, Hernández-González JA, Vázquez-Juárez R, Barrón-Enríquez C, Valladares-Trujillo R, Treviño-Baez JD, Alonso-Téllez CA, Ramírez-Calvillo LD, Cerda-Flores RM, Ortiz-López R, Rivera-Alvarado MÁ, Solórzano-Santos F, Castro-Garza J, Rodríguez-Padilla C. Genomic analysis of virulence factors and antimicrobial resistance of group B Streptococcus isolated from pregnant women in northeastern Mexico. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0264273. [PMID: 35294459 PMCID: PMC8926241 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0264273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction
Group B Streptococcus (GBS) causes infections in women during pregnancy and puerperium and invasive infections in newborns. The genes lmb, cylE, scpB, and hvgA are involved with increased virulence of GBS, and hypervirulent clones have been identified in different regions. In addition, increasing resistance of GBS to macrolides and lincosamides has been reported, so knowing the patterns of antibiotic resistance may be necessary to prevent and treat GBS infections. This study aimed to identify virulence genes and antibiotic resistance associated with GBS colonization in pregnant women from northeastern Mexico.
Methods
Pregnant women with 35–37 weeks of gestation underwent recto-vaginal swabbing. One swab was inoculated into Todd-Hewitt broth supplemented with gentamicin and nalidixic acid, a second swab was inoculated into LIM enrichment broth, and a third swab was submerged into a transport medium. All samples were subcultured onto blood agar. After overnight incubation, suggestive colonies with or without hemolysis were analyzed to confirm GBS identification by Gram staining, catalase test, hippurate hydrolysis, CAMP test, and incubation in a chromogenic medium. We used latex agglutination to confirm and serotype GBS isolates. Antibiotic resistance patterns were assessed by Vitek 2 and disk diffusion. Periumbilical, rectal and nasopharyngeal swabs were collected from some newborns of colonized mothers. All colonized women and their newborns were followed up for three months to assess the development of disease attributable to GBS. Draft genomes of all GBS isolates were obtained by whole-genome sequencing. In addition, bioinformatic analysis to identify genes encoding capsular polysaccharides and virulence factors was performed using BRIG, while antibiotic resistance genes were identified using the CARD database.
Results
We found 17 GBS colonized women out of 1154 pregnant women (1.47%). None of the six newborns sampled were colonized, and no complications due to GBS were detected in pregnant women or newborns. Three isolates were serotype I, 5 serotype II, 3 serotype III, 4 serotype IV, and 2 serotype V. Ten distinct virulence gene profiles were identified, being scpB, lmb, fbsA, acp, PI-1, PI-2a, cylE the most common (3/14, 21%). The virulence genes identified were scpB, lmb, cylE, PI-1, fbsA, PI-2a, acp, fbsB, PI-2b, and hvgA. We identified resistance to tetracycline in 65% (11/17) of the isolates, intermediate susceptibility to clindamycin in 41% (7/17), and reduced susceptibility to ampicillin in 23.5% (4/17). The tetM gene associated to tetracyclines resistance was found in 79% (11/14) and the mel and mefA genes associated to macrolides resistance in 7% (1/14).
Conclusions
The low prevalence of colonization and the non-occurrence of mother-to-child transmission suggest that the intentional search for GBS colonization in this population is not justified. Our results also suggest that risk factors should guide the use of intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis. The detection of strains with genes coding virulence factors means that clones with pathogenic potential circulates in this region. On the other hand, the identification of decreased susceptibility to antibiotics from different antimicrobial categories shows the importance of adequately knowing the resistance patterns to prevent and to treat GBS perinatal infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerardo del Carmen Palacios-Saucedo
- División de Investigación en Salud y División de Auxiliares de Diagnóstico, Unidad Médica de Alta Especialidad Hospital de Especialidades No. 25, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México
| | - Lydia Guadalupe Rivera-Morales
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Virología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León, México
- * E-mail:
| | - José Manuel Vázquez-Guillén
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Virología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León, México
| | - Amilcar Caballero-Trejo
- Departamento de Epidemiología y Dirección de Educación e Investigación, Unidad Médica de Alta Especialidad No. 23 Hospital de Ginecología y Obstetricia “Dr. Ignacio Morones Prieto”, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México
| | - Melissa Carolina Mellado-García
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Virología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León, México
| | - Aldo Sebastián Flores-Flores
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Virología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León, México
| | - José Alfredo González-Navarro
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Virología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León, México
| | - Celia Geovana Herrera-Rivera
- Dirección General de Calidad y Educación en Salud, Secretaría de Salud, Alcaldía Miguel Hidalgo, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Luis Ernesto Osuna-Rosales
- Unidad de Genómica, Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo en Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México
| | - Julio Antonio Hernández-González
- Laboratorio de Genómica y Bioinformática, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, La Paz, Baja California Sur, México
| | - Ricardo Vázquez-Juárez
- Laboratorio de Genómica y Bioinformática, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, La Paz, Baja California Sur, México
| | - Carolina Barrón-Enríquez
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Virología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León, México
| | - Ramón Valladares-Trujillo
- Coordinación de Educación e Investigación en Salud, Hospital General de Zona No. 17, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México
| | - Joaquín Dario Treviño-Baez
- Departamento de Epidemiología y Dirección de Educación e Investigación, Unidad Médica de Alta Especialidad No. 23 Hospital de Ginecología y Obstetricia “Dr. Ignacio Morones Prieto”, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México
| | - César Alejandro Alonso-Téllez
- Dirección General de Calidad y Educación en Salud, Secretaría de Salud, Alcaldía Miguel Hidalgo, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Luis Daniel Ramírez-Calvillo
- Dirección General de Calidad y Educación en Salud, Secretaría de Salud, Alcaldía Miguel Hidalgo, Ciudad de México, México
| | | | - Rocío Ortiz-López
- Unidad de Genómica, Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo en Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México
| | - Miguel Ángel Rivera-Alvarado
- División de Investigación en Salud y División de Auxiliares de Diagnóstico, Unidad Médica de Alta Especialidad Hospital de Especialidades No. 25, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México
| | - Fortino Solórzano-Santos
- Hospital de Pediatría, Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Alcaldía Cuauhtémoc, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Jorge Castro-Garza
- Laboratorio de Bioquímica y Genética de Microorganismos, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León, México
| | - Cristina Rodríguez-Padilla
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Virología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León, México
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Frequencies and characteristics of genome-wide recombination in Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Streptococcus suis. Sci Rep 2022; 12:1515. [PMID: 35087075 PMCID: PMC8795270 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-04995-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus consists of ecologically diverse species, some of which are important pathogens of humans and animals. We sought to quantify and compare the frequencies and characteristics of within-species recombination in the pan-genomes of Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus pyogenes and Streptococcus suis. We used 1081, 1813 and 1204 publicly available genome sequences of each species, respectively. Based on their core genomes, S. agalactiae had the highest relative rate of recombination to mutation (11.5743) compared to S. pyogenes (1.03) and S. suis (0.57). The proportion of the species pan-genome that have had a history of recombination was 12.85%, 24.18% and 20.50% of the pan-genomes of each species, respectively. The composition of recombining genes varied among the three species, and some of the most frequently recombining genes are implicated in adhesion, colonization, oxidative stress response and biofilm formation. For each species, a total of 22.75%, 29.28% and 18.75% of the recombining genes were associated with prophages. The cargo genes of integrative conjugative elements and integrative and mobilizable elements contained genes associated with antimicrobial resistance and virulence. Homologous recombination and mobilizable pan-genomes enable the creation of novel combinations of genes and sequence variants, and the potential for high-risk clones to emerge.
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